■>-5l»>'""^ B-^ i^l Commission, ?dlovlb's (Columbiau (!:vposition, CHICAGO, 1893. Offices of ihc ixecutivo Commissioner j Chicago, ..^.f^.yZ>^= ^^^ forwarded tvith tJio C07nplim&nts of th& Won. 4rthicr 0lcmvich^ JIM., &'.0l.G.S., idifiy , 11.^. i'y and (QX&cutiv& Gotnmission&r for Jf&iv Soioth tOales. Vlh 103—92 "'0 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. W ^?I7T7Xt5S AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE AS SPOKEN BY THE A^TV^^B^KA^L THE PEOPLE OF AWABA OR LAKE MACQUARIE (NEAR NEWCASTLE, NEW SOUTH WALES) BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THEIR LANGUAGE, TRADITIONS, AND CUSTOMS BY L. E. THEELKELD. Re-arranged, condensed, and edited, WITH AN APPENDIX, BY JOHN ERASEE, BA., LL.D., Fellow of the Royal Sucietij of New South Wales; Axsoeiate of the Victoria Institute of Great Britain ; Deligue General Cpour I Oceanic J de V Alliance Scientijique de Paris; Hon, Con. Member of the Celtic Socittij of Montreal ; Author of THE ETRUSCANS : WERE TIIEY CELTS ? THE ABORIQISES OF ACSTRALIA : TUEIR ETHNIC POSITION AND RELATIONS. CHARLES POTTER, GOVERNMENT PRINTER. 1892. AN" AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE AS SPOKEX BY THE AJ\\rj^:BJ^j^js^Tj THE PEOPLE OF AWABA OE LAKE MAC QUAE IE (NEAE NEWCASTLE, NEW SOUTH WALES) BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THEIR LANGUAGE, TRADITIONS, AND CUSTOMS BY L. E. THEELKELD. Be-arranged, condensed, and edited, WITH AN APPENDIX, BY JOHN ERASER, BA., LL.D., Fellow of the Royal Society of New South Vales; Assoriate of the Victoria Institute of Great Britain; Selegtie General (pour I'Oceanie) de V Alliance Scientijtque tie Paris; Hon, Con. Member of the Celtic Society of Montreal ; Author of THE ETRUSCANS : WERE THEY CELTS ? THE ABORIGINES OF AUSTRALIA : TUEIR ETHNIC POSITION AND RELATIONS. CHAELES POTTEE, GOVEENMENT PEINTEE. IVBRSIT s:^ 3/ ?Lllol i\'7 I& THE EDITOR'S PREFACE. This volume is issued by the Grovernment of New South Wales, as a record of the language of native tribes that are rapidly dis- appearing from the coasts of Eastern Australia. Presentation copies will be sent to the chief learned societies at home and abroad. The indigenes of the Sydney district are gone long ago, and some of the inland tribes are represented now only by a few families of wanderers. In all New South Wales, there are only five thousand full-blood blacks ; only four or five hundred in Victoria ; and in Tasmania the native race became extinct m 1S76. They have decayed and are decaying in spite of the fostering care of our Colonial Governments. A considerable portion of this volume consists of Mr. Threl- keld's acquisitions in the dialect which I have called the Awabakal, from Awaba, the native name for Lake Macquarie — his sphere of labour. But we have now come to know that this dialect was essentially the same as that spoken by the sub-tribes occupying the land where Sydney now stands, and that they all formed parts of one great tribe, the Kuriggai. In an Appendix I have collected several Grammars and Vocabularies as a contribution to a comparative knowledge of the dialects. The map and other illustrations are new, and were prepared for this work. The Gospel by St. Luke herein is now of no practical value, except to a linguist ; but it is unique, and it shows the structural system of the language. JOHN FEASEE. Sydney, May, 1892. CONTENTS. PAGES. Introduction ... ... xi — Ixiv Part I. — The Grammar and the Key ... ... 1-120 Grammar of the Awabakal Dialect ... i — 46 Vocabulary of the Awabakal Dialect ... 47 — 82 The Key to the Structure of the Awabakal Dialect ... ... ... ... ... go-120 Part II. — Translation of the Gospel by St. Luke 128-196 Part III. — The Lexicon to the Gospel by St. Luke ... ... ... ... ... ... 201-227 Part IV. — The Appendix (A.) Grammar and Vocabulary of the jMinyung Dialect ... ... ... 3 — 27 (B.) Grammar of the Narrinyeri and other Dialects of South Australia ... ... 28 — 47 (C.) Grammar of a Dialect in Western Australia ... ... ... ... 48 — 56 (D.) Grammar and Vocabulary of the Wiradhari Dialect in New South Wales 56-1 20 (E.) Prayers in the Awabakal Dialect ... 120-127 (F.) Sentences in the Kamalarai Dialect 1 27-1 31 (G.) The Earliest Specimen of an Aus- tralian Language ... ... ... 131-148 EEEATA. rage G, line 28. 11, 17, 18, 19, 37, 137, 4. 26. IG. 29. Fo}' ' sine ' read ' shine.' For gatoa read Bag. Lei Norn. 1 and Nom. 2 cliange places, so that bag and its line shall be Nom. 1. JOet Nom. 1 and Nom. 2 change places, so that bag and its line shall be Nom. 1. Zet Nom. 1 and Nom. 2 change places, so that unni and its line shall be Nom. 1. For bag (his) read bag ^(hts). The icord gatun seems to have dropped out of the manuscript at * * * Page 4, adfinem, T/n'sf recurs in the same sense on pp. 13, 14, IG. „ 30, „ For apioendis read volume. THE ILLUSTRATIONS. ->=<3-£l3-«e=i — 1. Map of Xew Soutk Wales as occupied by the t^atite TRIBES Frontispiece This map is the issue of ten years' thought and inquiry on the location of our native triues ; nothing of the kind has ])een attempted before. The basis of the wliole is the boundaries of the Kamalarai tribe, which were marked out for me by a friend who knew the tribe Avell fifty years ago ; his information I have tested and extended by answers I got from others, who also knew tlie tribe about that time. The Walarai dialect differs only a little from tlie Kamalarai proper ; so also the Waihvun, spoken by the Kgaiamba blacks ; for this reason, and because they have the classification of the Kamalarai, these are regarded as cndy subdivisions of the great Ka- malarai trilje. The Walarai dialect extends into Queensland. The next great tribe is the Kuringgai on the sea coast. Their 'taurai' (hunting ground or territory) is known to extend north to the Macleay Eiver, and I found that southwards it reached the Hawkesbury. Then, by examining the remains of the language of the natives about Sydney and southwards, and I>y other tests, I assured myself that the country there- about was occui^ied by sub-tribes of the Kurringgai. In a similar manner, I determined the territory of the Murrinjari on the south-east coast. The boundaries of the Wiradhari tribe have long been known. Probably they did not extend quite to the ]\Iurray, but that river is their natural limit on the south. From Moulamein westwards, as shown on the map, or from a line drawn from the Murruiiibidgee to the Murray somewhat farther east than that, and on both side's of the Murray, there is a patch of associated tribes whose dialects are called Yerry-yerry, Marrawarra, Yuyu, Tataty, Watty-watty, &c. , all from the local words for ' no.' Their position in fragments there is curious, and may be the result of some displacement from above by the in- coming of stronger tribes, such as the Wiradhari. The Bakanji is another strong tribe whose locality is well defined on the east by the \Viradhari. A sub-tribe of it is the Berriait, bordering on the Lachlan River and the Wiradhari frontier. A small portion of the north- west of New South Wales and much more of the adjoining territory in Queensland and South Australia has a tribe which some call the Kornu, but I am not sure that that is the correct name for it. The boundaries of the Paikalyung tribe were given me by the Rev. H. Livingstone, who knows it well. Its territory runs along the coast up nearly to Brisbane. The next tribe (I have called it Wachigari) has its ' taurai ' limited by the Paikalyung on the north and the Kuringgai on the south. The Yakkajari speak the Pikambal dialect, and extend across our border some distance into Queensland. X THE ILLUSTRATIONS. The New England tribe, the Yunggai, has caused me much perplexity. There are scarcely any blacks of that territory now surviving ; but the tribal language is quite different in its words from those around it ; I also know for certain that the table-land of New England did not belong either to the Kamalarai or the \Yalarai. I have, therefore, called this tribe the Yung-gai, from Y''ung — the name which the coast tribes give to New England. The Ngarego tribe belongs rather to Victoria than to New South Wales. Of these tribes, the Kamalarai, Walarai, Ngaiamba, Bakanji, Wiradhari, the Associated Tribes, the Ngarego, the Kuringgai, are names already estab- lished and in use ; and most of them are formed from the local word for ' no,' and thus describe more the speech than the people. The names, Murrinjari, Wachigari, Paikalynng, Yakkajari, I have made ; for these tribes have no general name for themselves. Wachi-gari and Yakka-jari are legitimate formations from the local words for 'no'; Murrin-jari and Paikal-yung mean the 'men,' which also is the meaning of the native tribe-name Kuringgai — all from their distinctive tribal-Avords for ' man. Tribes of aborigines, in many parts of the world, call themselves ' the men. 2. PoETEAiT or BiBABAN ... ... ... ... Page 88 This is the intelligent aboriginal who was so useful to Mr. Threlkcld. The illustration is reproduced from the pencil sketch which was made by Mr. Agate. 3. Portrait of " Old Margaret " — an ' Awabakalin,' or woman of the Lake Macquarie sub-tribe ... Page 196 ' Old Margaret ' is the last survivor of the Awabakal. She is now living in her slab-hat on a piece of land near Lake Macquarie Heads, and supports herself by her own industry. Slio had the advantage of early training in an English home in the district ; she is respectable and respected. Her features, as compared with those of other natives, show how much the type varies ; and yet she is an Australian of pure origin. She was born at Waiong, near the Hawkesbury River, and is now about 65 years of age. 4. BuNTiMAi — 'A Messenger' Page 212 This blackfellow is evidently on an errand which requires despatch. The 'possum cloak, the hair, and the general cast of the figure are true to nature, but the calves of the legs are stouter than usual. OP thr"^^ EESIT7] INTRODUCTION. I. The Gbammahs. No large effort lias yet been made to master the difBculties that present themselves in the study of the comparative grammar of the Australian languages. The only thing in this direction, that is known to me, is a paper on the "Position of the Australian Lan- guages, by W. H. J. Bleek, Esq., Ph.D.," published in L871. Dr. Bleek was a philologist who, in 1858, assisted in cataloguing the Library of His Excellency Sir Geo. Grey, K.C.B.,theu Governor of Cape Colony. Twenty years previously, Sir George (then Captain Grey), as leader of an expedition into the interior of our continent, had excellent opj^ortunities of seeing the native tribes in their original condition ; and the knowledge thus gained was enlarged by him and matured, while he was Governor of South Australia. The records of the knowledge of so intelligent an observer as Sir George Grey are sure to be valuable. These records are now in the South African Public Library, Cape Town, having been presented to that Library by him, along with his col- lection of books and other manuscripts. The catalogue of Sir George Grey's Library was published hj Triibner & Co., London, and Dr. Bleek devotes a portion of the second volume to the philology of the Australian languages.* The earliest of individual efforts to deal with any single lan- guage of the Australian group was made by the Eev. L. E. Threlkeld, who, for many years, was engaged as a missionary among the blacks of the Lake Macquarie district, near Newcastle, New South Wales. His Grammar of their language was printed in Sydney in 1834, at the " Herald O^ce, Lower George Street." A few years previously, Mr. Threlkeld had translated the Gospel by St. Luke into the same language. This translation remained in manuscript and had disappeared ; recently I discovered that it still exists, and is now in the Public Library of Auckland. This " Grammar " and the " Key " and the " Gospel," and some smaller fruits of Mr. Threlkeld's labours on that language, are now pub- lished in a collected form in the present volume. But Threlkeld's Grammar deals with only one dialect, and, for the purposes of comparative grammar, more languages than one are required. * Throughout this Introduction I say "languages," although, in fact, there is but one Australian language with many dialects ; I also use the word " language " instead of dialect, wherever the meaning is clear. SU IXTEODUCTIOy. In lonliing about for anofher Grammar, I remembered that Mr. Horatio Hale, the philologist of the United States' Exploring Ex- pedition, had, in his A'olume on the Ethnography and Philology of the Expedition-*, made a short synopsis af two of our dialects. "When in this colony, he got access to the Eev. William AVatson, then missionary to the aborigines at "Wellington Valley," who drew up for him "nn account of the most important peculiarities of the Wiraduri language, modelled as nearly as possible on the Grammar of Mr. Threlkeld, for the purpose of comparison." Purther search disclosed the fact that, as early as 1835, a Dictionary and a Grammar had been prepared there, and the Gospel by St. Luke had been translated. How valuable these materials would now be, to illustrate the Awabakal of Lake Macquarie ! but Mr. Watson had no relatives in this colony, and on his death his manuscripts were sold as waste paper; so I am told. Fortunately, the late Archdeacon Giinther, of Mudgee, wrote a Grammar of the Wiradhari and collected a copious A^ocabulary about the year 1838. The Vocabulary I found to be in the hands of his son, the present Archdeacon of Camden, and it is here published, along with a short introductory Grammar wdiich forms part of the manuscript Vocabulary. A longer Grammar was, many years ago, sent to the home country, and I fear that it cannot now be recovered. The next labourers in the field of Australian grammar were the Liitheran Missionaries, Messrs. Teichelmann (E, G.) and Schiir- mann (C. W.) In 1840 they published a " Grammar, Vocabulary, and Phrase-book" of the aboriginal language of the Adelaide tribe. Then, in 185G, appeared the primer, " Gurre Kamilaroi," by the Eev. W. Eidley. Mr. Ridley, who was a man of rare devotedness and self-denial, went among the aborigines of Liverpool Plains and shared the privations of their wandering life, in order that he might learn their language, and so be able to teil them the message of the Gospel. In 1866 (2nd edition, 1875), our Government Printing Olflce issued his book on the " Kamilaroi, Dippil, and Turrubul languages." A Grammar of some of the dialects spoken in South Australia is contained in Taplin's " Folk Lore," which was published in 1879. This Grammar is given here in a condensed form. II. Mr. Threlkeld. Lancelot Edward Threlkeld, the pioneer in the field of Aus- tralian language, died in Sydney on the morning of the lOtli October, 1859, having on the previous day preached twice in his own church — the church of the Bethel Union there. * See pp. 479-531 of " United States' Exploring E.xpedition during the years 1838-42, under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N. — Vol. VI., Ethnography and Ethnology : By Horatio Hale, philologist of the Expedi- tion. /-"AiYatZe/p/i/a .• Lea and Blanchard. 1846." I>'TEODUCTIO>". XIU Mr. Tlirelkeld's birthplace was Hatlierleigh, iii Devon, but the family belonged originally to the county of Cumberland, and there to the village of Threlkeld, which either had its name from them or gave its name to them. In " Burke's Peerage," we read of Threlkeld of Threlkeld in the time of Edward I. That family became extinct in the male line in the reign of Edward IV, but the name was continued through a younger branch, Threlkeld* of Melmerly, in the same county. A romantic story from the Wars of the Roses connects itself with a Sir Lancelot Threlkeld by his marriage with the widow of Lord Clifibrd. Clifford had much power in Yorkshire, wliere his estates were, but, although related to the House of York, he was a keen supporter of the Lancastrians, and with his own hand be killed the youngest son of the Duke of York in cold blood after the battle of Sandal, in revenge for an injury he had received The sanguinary conduct of Lord Clifford on this occasion is com- memorated by our poet, Drayton, in his ' Polyolbion,' in the lines beginning : — - " ^Vhere York himself before his castle gate, Mangled with wounds, on his own earth lay dead, Upon whose body Clifi'ord down him sate, Stabbing the corpse, and, cutting off' his head, Crowned it with paper, and, to wreak his teene. Presents it so to his victorious Queene." Three months after this, Clifford was himself shot through with an arrow in the battle of Towton, and the Yorkists, being now victoi'lous, stripped the Clifford family of all their estates and possessions; this happened in the year 1470. The heir to Lord Clifford's name and fame was a little boy then six years old. His mother feared that the House of York would seek to avenge on him the murder of their own boy, the young Earl of Rutland ; she had now no powerful friends to protect her and her son, and she knew that her movements were watched ; in these circum- stances she resolved, for safety, to commit her boy to the care of her faithful retainers, and have him brought up as a shepherd on his own estates. Meanwhile, the report was spread that he had been sent to Holland and had died there. When he had reached the age of twelve years, his widowed mother married Sir Lancelot Threlkeld. This was a fortunate thing for the lad, for it led to his removal from the neighbourhood of his own home to places of greater security among the mountains of Cumberland ; and his new father, being entrusted with the secret, faithfully assisted in watching over the life of the orphan heir. To avert suspicion, it was still found necessary to continue his disguise ; but, although he was thus left without education, and could neither read nor wi'ite till happier days had come, yet the culture of his race showed XIV IITTEODUCTIOX. itself in his natural intelligence and his jjersonal demeanour. He grew u}) a tall and handsome youth, with the features and com- manding mien of his grandfather, who had been much loved and regretted. While still living in obscurity as a shepherd, he gained such a knowledge of astronomy as made him a wonder to many in later years, and his gentle manners so shone through rustic attire that he secured the affection of a lady of rank, well known at that time as the " nut-brown maid "■ — the daughter of Sir John St. John; her he married. When the "Wars of the Roses " were ended by the accession of Henry VII., and peace was again come, the young Lord Clifford, now 32 years of age, asserted his right to the Londesborough estates, and, on petition to the King, was restored to his title and his lands. The men of the time called him the " Shepherd Earl." In addition to Londesborough, the place of his birth, he was owner of Brougham and Skipton, but he usually resided near Bolton, and there, after many years, he died, and was buried in the choir of the Abbey. His son was created Earl of Cumberland ; and a grandson was a naval com- mander in Elizabeth's reign. In 1742 the heiress of the Cliffords married an ancestor of the present Duke of Devonshire, and with her the estates in Yorkshire passed over to that family. This incident has only a remote connection with the Threlkeld family, but I have given it here as an interesting glimpse into the private history of noble families in those troublous times. Our author was born in 1788 at the village of Hatherleigh, and, while still a boy, he experienced deep religious convictions under the ministry of the vicar of the parish. This ultimately led to his offering himself to the London Missionary Society for work in the foreign field, and so, after sevei'al years of instruction and training at Gosport under Mr. Bogue, he was ordained, along wdth Mr. Ellis, on the 8th November, 1815, and appointed to labour at Rai-atea, in the ' Society ' group of the South Seas. Towards the end of that month he embarked in a government vessel, the " Atlas," which was aboiit to proceed to Sydney. At Eio de Janeiro, his wife fell ill, and for nearly a year he had to remain there, all the while acting as the first Protestant minister whom the English residents at Eio ever had. On 22nd January, 1817, he sailed again, along with Messrs. John Williams, Darling, Bourne, and Piatt, all bound for missionary work in the islands of the South Seas. After a short stay at Hobart, they reached Sydney on the 11th May, 1817, and Mr. Threlkeld proceeded to Eaiatea soon after. The death of his wife led him to return to Sydney in 1824. Next yeai', the London Missionary Society established a mission to our native blacks at Lake Macquarie under the care of Threlkeld, and there, with assistance subsequently from the lyTRODUCTION. XV Government of the Colony of New South Wales, the mission was maintained till December 31, 1841, when the number of the natives there had so declined that it had to be abandoned. It was during those seventeen years of labour that Mr. Threlkeld acquired so much experience in the use of the native dialect of the tribe, that he was enabled to prepare the works which form the bulk of this volume. The year 1842 and the surrounding years were a time of terrible commercial distress in the colony, and, when the mission station was abandoned, Mr, Threlkeld lost all his property there. But, in 1845, he was appointed minister of the Mariners' Church, Sydney, and in that otfice he continued till his death. By his first wife he had one son and three daughters ; by his second wife — a daughter of Dr. Arndell, the Colonial surgeon of the time — he had two sons and three daughters. Those of his children who still survive occupy honourable positions in this colony. The following is believed to be a complete list of Mr. Threlkeld's labours in the dialect which I have called the ' Awabakal ' : — 1827.- — "Specimens of the Aboiiginal Language"; printed then. 1829. — First draft of the Translation of the Gospel by St. Luke. 1832. — Translation of Prayers for Morning and Evening Service from the Bitual of the Church of England ; these were selected by Archdeacon Broughton. 1834.— "The Australian Grammar" published. Mr. Threlkeld's memoranda show that at the beginning of this year the follow- ing subjects were occupying his attention : — • 1. Specimens of the Language. 2. The Australian Grammar. 3. The Gospel by St. Luke, under revisal. 5. The Gospel by St. Mark, in preparation. The first rough translation was completed in 1837. .5. The Gospel by St. Matthew, just commenced. 6. The instruction of two native youths in writing and read- ing their own language. 7. Beading lessons selected from the Old Testament. 8. An Australian Spelling Book. 1836.— "The Spelling Book" printed. 1850. — " The Key to the Aboriginal Language" published. 1859. — At the time of his death he was engaged in completing the translation of the four Gospels ; and was proceeding with the " Lexicon to the Gospel by St. Luke." Thus our author's life closed in the midst of 'labours many,' XVI INTEODUCTIOK. III. Ikfluexces affecting the Laxgvage. The position of our Australian dialects in their relation to the great families of langua^re has not yet been determined. That task demands leisure, labour, and skill. A collection of carefully prepared Grammars and Vocabularies would make the task much easier ; but where are these to be had ? With the exception of those that I have named, I know of none. Australian Vocabu- laries have been collected in abundance, but, for the most part, these are quite useless to the philologist ; they consist of dialect- names for native customs and weapons, for the birds of the air, the beasts of the field, and the trees of the forest. All this is mistaken labour which yields no fruit. "What we want is to get from each dialect a sufficient number of words expressing the ideas essential to a language, in the form of substantive, adjec- tive or verb, and a sufficient number of simple sentences ; this would enable the philologist to ascertain what is the structure of its grammar and its vocables. The Australian languages are subject to a principle of change which it is worth our pains to consider here. The native tribes name their children from any ordinary occurrence, which may have taken place at the birth or soon after it. Por instance, if a kangaroo-rat were seen to run into a hollow log at that time, the child would be named by some modification of the word for kangaroo-rat. At a later period of the boy's life, that name might be changed for another, taken from some trivial circumstance in his experience ; just as our own boys get by-names at school. "When a man or woman dies, his family and the other members of the tribe, as far as possible, never mention his name again, and dis- continue the use of those ordinary words which formed part of his name ; other words are substituted for those common ones, and become permanently established in the daily language of the clan or sub-tribe to which the deceased belonged.* In this way new words arise to designate those familiar objects, the previous names for which have been cast aside ; and these new words are formed regularly from other root-words, that describe probably another quality inherent in the thing in question. Let me illus- trate this matter by examples. A man or a woman may get a name from some peculiar physical feature, such as a large mouth, or chin, or head ; or a name taken from an animal or tree, or .any similar object, animate or inanimate, which iiad some relation to his birth. A Tasmanian woman was called Eamanalu, ' little gull,' because a gull fiew by at the time of the child's birth. After her death, the word ram a would never be used again for 'a gull '; a new name for ' gull ' would be invented, forrfied, it * It is possible that the discaixled word resumes its place in the language after a while ; this point I have not ascertained ; at all events, the adopted word remains. INTRODUCTION. XVll may be, from a root-word meaning ' white,' Lecause of the white- ness of the bird. This new word would be used by all the kindred and acquaintances of the deceased, and would ere long establish itself in the language of that portion of the tribe as the right name for ' gull.' Again, a boy of the Dungog tribe of blacks, in our own colony, was receiving instruction from the old men of the tribe ; he was required to make a spear, and was sent into the bush to select a suitable piece of wood ; he cut off and brought to them a piece of the ' cockspur ' tree ; this choice was so absurd, that forthwith his instructors dubbed him Bobin- kat, and that was his name ever after. When he died, the word bo bin would disappear, and some other name be found for the cockspur tree. A}id the operation of this principle is not confined to Australia ; it is found also in Polynesia ; but there it has respect to the living, not the dead. High chiefs there are regarded as so exalted personages, that common people must not make use of any portion of their names in ordinary talk, for fear of giving offence. If, for example, a chiefs name con- tains the word pe'a, ' bat,' the tribe calls the 'bat,' not pe'a, but manu-o-le-lagi, ' bird of the sky.' In languages which are not subject to these influences, the derivation of such a word is usually very plain; the Latin vespertilio, ' bat,' for instance, bears its origin on its very face ; but if a philologist, not knowing the history of the word manu-o-le-lagi, were to find it to mean a ' bat ' in a Polynesian tongue, he would be puzzled to explain how it is that a creature so peculiar as the ' bat,' should have been named by a w^ord having so indefinite a meaning as the ' bird of the sky.' Any one who may have had the curiosity to look into lists of names for common things in Australian vocabularies, must have been surprised to see how diverse are these names in the various tribes, but your wonder ceases to be wonder when the cause is known. In fact, we do find that amono: conter- minous tribes, and even in the sub-sections of the same tribe, these words vary greatly; for the presence of death from time to time in the encampments kept up a frequent lapse of words. To show how much a native language may be effected by this cause of change, I quote here a few sentences from Taplin, who, for many years, was in daily contact with the black natives of >South Australia. In his Vocabulary he says : — "Therto, 'head'; obsolete on account of death. Koninto, 'stomach'; obsolete on account of death. Muna, ' hand '; not used on account of the death of a native of that name. When any one dies, named after anything, the name of t'^at thing is at once changed. For instance, the name for ' water ' was changed ninr f lines in about five years on accoant of the death of eight men who bore the name of ' water.' The reason of this is that the name of the departed is never mentioned because of a super- stitious notion tliat his spirit would immediately appear, if mentioned in any wav." [IB] XVlll UTTEODFCTIOX. It may possibly be asked why our blackfellou-s bad so strong a disiuclinatiou to mention the name of a friend who had died. We ourselves have a feeling of the same kind. "We speak of cur friend as ' the deceased,' ' the departed,' 'him who has gone ' ; and if we must mention his name, we apologise for it by saying ' poor ' Mr. So-and-so, and seem afraid to use the simple word ' dead.' But our indigenes have a stronger reason than that. They believe tliat the spirit of a man, especially if he is killed by violence, is excessively uncomfortable after death, and malicious, and in its fretfulness ready to take offence at anything, and so pour out its Avrath on the living. Even the mention of the dead man's name would offend, and bring vengeance on them in the night time. Our blacks seem also to have the idea that the deceased, for a certain number of days after death, has not 3'et got his spiritual body, which slowly grows upon him, and that, while in this un- developed state, he is like a child, and is specially querulous and vengeful. lY. Tests in ExAMiKiNa Languages. I now proceed to show some results which may be obtained even from our Australian words, by comparing them with others elsewhere. It is agreed among philologists, that there is no surer test of the afBuity of different languages than that which comes through the identification of their pronouns, numerals*, and, to a less extent, their prepositions. To this I would add, in our present inquiry, the identity of such common words as 'eye, foot, hand, tire, sun, moon,' and the like ; for these words cannot have been \ised much in the names of individuals, and are therefore not likely to have suffered from the fluctuations which I have already explained. It is true that, in all languages, the pronouns and the numerals are sul)ject to abrasion and decay, from the frequency and rapidity with which they are pronounced, and from a natural tendency everywhere to shorten the words which are most in use. But it is the function of the philologist, not only to understand these causes of decay, but to show the process by which the words fell away, and to restore them to their original forms for the purpose of identification. It is agreed, then, that the numerals, the pronouns, and, to some extent, the prepositions, are a strong test of the affinity of languages. On this principle, such languages as the Sanskrit, the Greek, the Latin, the German and Gothic, the Lithuanian, the Keltic, have been tested and proved to be so much akin that they are grouped as a well-defined family of languages — the Aryan. Some anthropologists, especially when they are not linguists them- selves, sneer at the labours of philology as deceptive and liable to * Bopp says that the lowest numerals can never be introduced into any country by foreigners. INTRODrCTIOy. XIX serious error; so are all sciences, If not managed with care and ability. A student in chemical analysis and synthesis may get results which are clearly erroneous ; instead of declaring the pre- scribed methods to be faulty or his materials to be bad, he ought to blame only his own want of skill in manipulation. As to the utility of philology, I would only remark that it was by the study of languages that the place o£ Sanskrit (and consequently of the Hindu race) was determined in its relation to the other members of the family I have named, and it was philology alone that settled the claim of the Keltic, and consequently of the Kelts, to be regarded as one of the most ancient members of the Aryan family. In the case of the cuneiform inscriptions, the services which philology has rendered are inestimable. And It is quite possible that, amid the conflicting opinions as to the origin of our Australian race, the via prima salutis, the first dawn of a sure daylight, may in the future arise from a careful examination of their language. As is well known, the Australian numeral system Is very limited in its range ; our natives say ' one,' ' two ' ; sometimes ' three ' ; occasionally 'hand' for 'five'; all else is 'many,' 'a great number.' It was alleged by Sir John Lubbock, and has since been repeated by everybody, that their having separate words only for 'one' and ' two ' is a proof that Australians possess very limited mental powers, since they cannot count higher than 'two.' Every colonist, who has been much in contact with the blacks, can addtice proofs to show that their mental powers are not so limited, and that, when our indigenes are taken out of their adverse environment and encouraged to cultivate their intellectual faculties, they readily develope a decided capacity for improvement. A friend of mine, fifty years ago, taught two young black boys to play chess ; they soon acquired a liking for the game, and learned to play with caution and skill, and even with success. If it were possible to surround the blacks with favourable influences continued from generation to generation, I have no doubt that their whole position would be altered ; but any final separation from their ancestral habits would lead to their S2:)cedy extinction as a race ; this was the issue that was rapidly approaching after the last remnants of the Tasmanians were removed to Flinders' Island. But, for many hundreds of years, no one can tell how many, i\\e Australian race has lived in the midst of adverse surroundings, tribe warring against tribe, each, tribe restricted to its own boundaries, the supply of food in our precarious climate often scanty, the paralysing terror produced by their strong belief in the supernatural power of demons and of their own wizards, the ravages of Avaves of disease and death sweeping over them from time to time ; all these and other causes com- pelled them to think only of their daily subsistence and the XX INTRODUCTION. preservation o£ their lives, fixed and deepened their degradation, and prevented even the possibility of amelioration and elevation. The natives of the 8outh Sea islands, whose lot has been a fairer one, have had many yams and. cocoa-nuts and bananas and other things to count, and so have developed a wide system of numbers ; but our poor blackfellows, whose only personal property is a few spears or so, have not felt it necessary to speak of more than ' one,' ' two,' or ' three ' objects at once. Then, as to the linguistic question on which Sir John Lubbock builds his charge, I think it could be shown that even the Aryan system of numbers — the most highly developed system of any — is founded on the words for ' one,' ' two,' ' three,' and no more, all the rest being combinations of these by addition or by multiplication. Further, the Aryans have singular and dual forms for nouns and pronouns, that is, they have number-forms for ' one ' and ' two,' but all the rest beyond that is included in the general name of plural, that is 'more'; indeed the Sanskrit uses its word for ' four ' in a general way to mean a considerable number, exactly as to our blackfellows all else beyond two or three is bula, ' many.' For these reasons I think that this charge against our blackfellows ought to be laid on better ground than that afforded by their numerals. Y. The Australian Numerals. If Bopp's dictum is well founded, the numerals 'one,' ' two,' ' three,' Avhen tested, may tell us something about the origin of our Australian blacks. I, therefore, now proceed to examine these numerals. And here I may be permitted to say that I alone am responsible for the arguments drawn from the evidence pro- duced in this inquiry. So far as I know, these arguments have never been advanced previously ; indeed, I am convinced that no one has ever discussed these numerals before, for it is com- monly alleged that it is impossible to give any account of them. 1. The Numeral 'One.' (a.) Of the words for ' one,' T take up first that which is least common, pir, ' one.' It is used in the Walarai country (see map). It must be an old and genuine word, for I know that, in another dialect, the word piriwal means 'chief,' and pir seems to me to bear the same relation to piriwal that the Latin primus, ' first,' bears to princeps, ' chief,' ' first,' or the Latin preposi- tion pro, ' before,' to proceres, ' chiefs,' or our English word 'first' to the German fiirst, 'aprince.' In fact, I regard pro and pir as the same word originally. Now, do not mistake me here ; I'or I do not assert that the languages spoken by our Australians are uterine brothers to the Latin and the Greek ; but I do assert that all languages have INTRODUCTION". XXI one common, althougli ancient, origin, and t^^at, in the essential Avords of these languages, there are proofs of that common origin. Pir, then, as allied to pro, means the number which comes ' before ' all others in the row, the one that comes ' first.' The Latin primus is for pri-imus {cf. Sk. pra-thamas, 'first'), in which the root pri, not unlike pir, is the same as the Latin pro andprae. In the Aryan family, the nearest approach to the Australian pir is the Lithuanian pir-mas, 'first,' and pir-m (a preposition), 'before'; other remote kinsmen are the Greek pro-tos, ' first,' pru-tanis, 'aprince,' 'a president' {cf. piriwal), prin, ' before'; the Gothic fru-ma, 'first'; the Aryan prefixes pra, fra, pro, pru, prae, pre, and fore as in our English 'fore-ordain.' The Keltic languages drop the initial p ov f, and say ro, ru, air, ari, to mean ' before.' In the Malay region ar-uug is a 'chief,' and in Polynesia ari-ki is 'a chief,' which the Samoans change into ali'i ; these words, I would say, come from eastern forms corresponding to the Keltic ro, air, 'before.' In Samoau i lu-ma means ' in front,' and in Malay de-ahi-wan ; these are like ru ; in Aneityum, a Papuan island of the New Hebrides, a ' chief is called natimi arid, where natimi means 'man,' and arid is 'high,' 'exalted,' doubtless from the same root asariki; and arid is to ariki as the Latin procerus, ' tall,' to proceres, ' chief's.' Prom the abraded from ru I take the New Britain* word lua (Samoan lua'i;, ' first.' In the Dravidian languages of India, from which quarter, as I suppose, our Australian languages have come, there is a close parallel to our word pir, for pir a means 'before,' and pir an is ' a lord.' Dravidian scholars themselves acknowledge that pir an comes from the Sanskrit preposition pra, ' before'; this corroborates my derivation of the Australian word piriwal and the Maori ariki. The Aroma dialect of New Guinea says pira- na, ' face'; and in my opinion this pirana bears the same rela- tion to the Dravidian pira that the Latin frons has to the pre- position pro, the Samoan mua-ulu to mua, 'first,' and the English fore-head, to be-fore. The Motu dialect says vaira for ' face, front'; I take this to be a metathesis of pira, for the Motu also says vaira-nai, 'before'; another dialect says vari ; with this compare pro, para, and frons. The negroes, to the west of Khartoum, also say ber, bera, for ' one.' The Australian postposition bir-ung, ' away from,' seem.s to be connected with this root in the same way as the Greek para. The dictionary meanings of the Sanskrit preposition pra are "■ before,' ' away,' 'beginning'; now, if these three meanings were * New Britain and New Ireland are two tolerably large islands lying to the east of New Guinea, aiid Duke of York Island — a name corrupted by the natives into Tukiok — is a small island in the straits between these two. The natives of all these are Papuans. XXU INTRODrCTION. carried to Australia throu<j;h the Dravidian form pira, they abundantly justify my arguments as to tlic origin of the Austra- lian word pir, 'one,' and birung, 'away from.' In New Britain pirai means ' odd,' 'not a "round" number' {rf. the game of 'odds and evens '), and this sense must be from a numeral meaning 'one.' In the Ebudan* language of Efate, 'a voice came from heaven' is nafisan sikei i milu elagi mai, in which milu elagi signifies ' away from (direction from) the sky.' Here milu is identical in form and meaning with the AAvabakal birung. ^Further, in New Britain and in the Duke of York Is. (Melanes- ian), ka, kan mean ' from,' kapi, with verbs of motion, implies 'motion from,' and kabira means 'on account of.' These cor- resi)oud very well with the forms and uses of the Awabakal post- positions kai, ka-birung, kiu-birung. The simple form biru is therefore cognate to the Sanskrit para, Gr., para, 'from.' Scm3 further light on this lioint may be got from another quarter. The Hebrew preposition corresponding to birung is min, or, •without the ??, mi, mii ; in form this is not far removed from the bi of birung. Min, originally, is a noun meaning a ' part,' and, in its use as a preposition, it answers first to the partitive genitive or the preposition ex in the classic languages ; then, from this primary notion, it is used to signify a ' departing from' anyplace, 'distance from,' 'proceeding or 'receding from'; in these respects it corresponds exactly with the Australian birung. Now, miin, (minj, ' a part,' comes from the Heh. root manah, 'to divide.' But, in Dravidian, the verb 'to divide' is per, piri, and that also is a close approximation to our Australiau birung. In the chief Dravidian dialects, 'a part', 'a jjortion' is pal; this again brings us to the Shemitic pala, parash, and many other forms of that verb, meaning 'to share,' ' to separate,' &c., and to the Sanskrit phal, 'to divide,' Gr. meiromai, 'I share,' mer OS, 'apart,' Lat. pars, and a host of Avords from these. Now, if birung be the Dravidian piri, per, and if piri, per be the same word as the Sanskrit pal and the Jleb. pala, and if these are all original root-words belonging to a common stock, I cannot see how it is possible for anyone to avoid the force of the argument from this that our Australian indigenes have a share in a common ancestry, and that, in language, their imme- diate ancestors are the Dravidians of India. Results in this Section are : — Preposition forms to mean 'before' are, in the primitive languages, pro^ pri^pro, prae,pru; other forms are j9«r-«, par-os, pur-as ; modes of all these a.re,fra, fru, vor, Jbre, and, without the initial letter, ro, ru, air ; the Lithu- * I have made the word ' Ebudan ' (Lat. Ehndes insidae), and use it as more convenient to handle than 'New Hebridean. ' The languages spoken on New Britain, New Ireland, Duke of York Island, Solomon Islands, JSanta Cruz, and Banks Islands I call ' Albanuic ' {cf. Lat. Albion), and any root-words which arc found in the JNlalay, Melanesian, and Pulyuesian languages I call ' Sporadic. ' lyTRODUCTIOX. XXIU anian lias plr, and with this correspond the Dravidian pir-a, ' before,' the Australian pir, ' one,' and the Turkic, bir, ' one.' In Sanskrit, tlie old ablative form purd means ' formerly,' ' first '; cognates are the Gr. j^aros, ' before,' and the Zen^jyara, 'before.' (J). But the most common word for 'one' in New South "Wales is wakul. In fact, it is our Sydney word for ' one,' and there can be no doubt of its genuineness, for it is noted by Lieut. -Colonel Collins as a Port Jackson word in his book on the Colony, published 1802; he spells it wogul. At Newcastle it waswakol; in the Williams Eiver district, wakul-bo, and on the Manning, wakul. From my manuscript notes I write down the various forms which this word assumes, beginning with Tasmania and passing northwards to the Timor Sea : — Tasmania, mara-i, mara-wa ; in Victoria, bur ; on the Murray Eiver near Wentworth and Euston, mo, mata, mada, meta-ta; on the middle course of the Darling, waichola ; on the Upper Murray, mala; on Monero Plains, yalla; at Moruya, med- endaf; in the Murrumbidgee district, mit-ong ; at Jervis Bay, met-ann; on Groulburn Plains, met-ong ; in the lUawarra district, mit-ung; at Appin, wogul; at Sydney and north- wards to the Manning River and the Hastings, wakul; on Liverpool Plains, mal; at Wellington, mal-and a ; in southern Queensland, byada, muray, baja, b3^aya; in the Northern Territory of South Australia, mo-tu, wa-rat, wa-dat. Besides these, some other words for the number 'one' are used in various parts of Australia, but those that I have given all pro- ceed from the original root, which it will be our duty now to discover. And I notice, first of all, that one word in the list stretches along the whole extent of seaboard from the Illawarra district to the Hastings — the word wakul — and this fact affords the presumption that all that coast line was occupied by the same tribe, or by tribes closely akin; for the tribes a little inland say mal and mal-anda for ' one.' Wakul, then, was the word used by the Sydney blacks, as Collins testifies. If a chemist has a compound substance handed to him for analysis, he experiments on it, and tests it in order to discover its elements. Let us do so with wakul ; it is a compound, for simple roots are usually monosyllables ; but are its parts wa + kul orwak + ul? Here I remember that, in the same region where wakul exists, there is a word kara-kal, ' a wizard,' 'a doctor or medicine-man,' but inland he is called kara-ji. This satisfies me as proof that the -kul is merely a formative syllable, and that the root is wa. And this conviction is strengthened when I cast my eye over the above list of words ; for they all begin with the sjdlable ma or some modification of it, the rest of each word consisting of various formative syllables. As I have now got hold of a clue to a solution, I reflect that the initial labial of a root-word may XXIV IXTKODTJCTION. assume various forms ; thus, />, h, m may interchansje, and may easily become/, ivh, v, xc. There can be no doubt, for instance, that the Latin pater, the German vater, aud the English father are the same word ; there ^;=/=v; and in one district in Scotland the people always say fat for what and far for where ; so also the Maori whatu is the Samoau f atu ; that is f:=ivh ; h and m also are interchangeable, in Oriental languages especially, for m is only the sound of the letter b modified by the emission of a breathing through the nose ; m is therefore re- garded as a h nasalized. I note also that the words under con- sideration all begin with the cognate sound of m, b, or w, except yalla; and this example 1 think must have been at onetime walla, that is, uala, of which the u has obtained the sound of ^ (y); or wa-la may come from the same root as wa-kul, the difference lying only in the termination. The other vowels of root word are o, u, e, i, ai, all of which in Australian are modi- fications of the original sound «. Having now discovered the root-germ from which our Sydney friend Avakul proceeded, and having noted the various guises which he has assumed in these colonies, we must next ask where he came from, and see if he has any kinsmen in other lands ; for, when by searching we find that out, we may perhaps be justified in saying that the Australians brought the root-word with them from those lands. Before setting out on this quest, I observe that when a number of men are arranged in a row, he who is number one is (1) 'before' all the others, and 'in front' of them ; he is thereby (2) 'first or foremost'; he has (3) the 'pre-eminence' in honour or authority, and (4) he may be regarded as the ' begin- ning or origin' of all the others.* We may therefore reasonably expect that words for 'one' will be akin to other words, bearing some one or other of these four meanings. I have already shown that the Kamalarai numeral pir, 'one,' is related to Aryan pre- positions meaning 'before,' and to the Maori word ariki (Samoan ali'i), 'a chief,' as one having authority and eminencet ; I shall now show that the kindred of wakul have the other meanings as well. And, first, I note that the word bokol is used for 'one' in the island of Santo, one of the New Hebrides. Bokol is so like wogul, the Port Jackson word, that I cannot doubt their identity; and yet it is impossible to suppose that the one word can be borrowed from the other. The islanders of Santo can never have had any intercourse with the blacks of Sydney ; nor, if they had in any past time, can we believe that either language was so * Cf. the H eh. .Ihadh, kedam, rosh, aftl or yaal, for these meanings. t The Insular-Keltic words for 'chief,' 'principal,' are prionih, ard, araid; and roimh is 'before.' It is evident that these are only cor- ruptions of the root pri, pro, prae, pra, 'hefore.' In Ku, a Dravidian dialect, 'one' or 'first' is ra (rf. Sk. pra) and in Duke of York Island (New Britain Group), 'one' is ra, re. INTEODUCTION. XXV miserably poor as to be without a word of its own for ' one.' The blacks of Santo are a frizzly-haired negroid race ; I therefore argne, from the evidence of this word, that these blacks and our blacks have, in some way, one common origin. I next take you to another Papuan region having a negroid population — a group of islands off the east end of New Guinea and consisting of New Britain, New Ireland, and some others. In the Duke of York Island there, I find the following words, all akin to wakul, viz., makala, 'for the 'first' time' mara, ma- ra-kam, 'forthe 'first' time,' marua, 'tobear fruit for the 'first' time, to enter on a new course, to begin,' mara, 100 (= the 'beginning' of a new reckoning), muka, 'first,' muka-na, 'first-' born son,' muka-tai, 'first,' mun, 'to go first.'* In all these, the rootis ma, mu, asin Australia, and the abundance of these derived forms in this Tukiok language proves that the root is indigenous, not borrowed. Among them I observe mara, 'for the ' first ' time,' and mara, 100, and this is exactly the Tasmanian word (mara- wa) for 'one'; another of them is muka, 'first,' and this word, by dropping the k, which is neverf sounded in Samoan, becomes the Samoan niua, 'first,' and mua-ulu, 'thefore-head.':j: Mua also is very common in Samoan (as in f oe-mua, 'the 'first' or stroke oar,' a-fiia, 'to begin'), and thus proves itself to be native to the language. Further, you may have observed that some of the Australian words for 'one' are mo, mata. AVith mo compare the Santo word mo-ig,'to begin,' — another proof that the Santoans and the Australians are kinsmen; with mata compare the Motu word mata-ma, 'abeginning,' and mata-mata, 'new,' 'fresh'; theFijiau matai, 'first,' and tau-mada 'before-hand'; the Maori ti-mata, 'to begin'; the Samoan a-mata, 'to begin'; the New Britain a-ma-na, 'before, in front,' mata-na, 'the front,' biti-na 'the commencement'; the Motu badi-na, 'origin,' andthe Aneit- yumese ni-mti-din, 'the front'; with mu compare the Fijian vuna, 'to begin,' and the New Britain wa-vuua, 'to begin,' and the Santo mul, 'a chief,' as being the 'first' man. All these I * Compare with this the Tamil postposition mun, 'before.' t The one solitary exception is puke, 'catch you'! — a child's play- word. + An uncommon form of the root ba is va ; and from it the Mangaians (Hervey Islands) say va-ri, 'a beginning'; but in the Koiari dialect of New Guinea this same word means 'the forehead,' 'the face.' This word thus illustrates the procession of meanings from the root pra (para), pro, 'before'; for vari is equivalent to 'that which is before,' hence 'a beginning,' 'the forehead' as the 'front' part of tlie human body, 'the face ' ; it also throws some light on the derivation of frons, which has so puzzled Latin etymologists that some of them derive it from the Greek ophrus, 'the eyebrow'! The Motumotu dialect of New Guinea says hali, instead of vari, for 'forehead'; sevei'al other dialects there say i-piri-ti, paru, para-na, pira-na, for 'face'; these are all connected with the Dravidian pira, 'before.' The Brahui of Afghanistan says mun, ' the face,' which is the same word as the Tamil, mun, ' before.' 5;XV1 IK^THOBUCTIOK. have noticed in the course of my reading, but I believe there are many other words in these islands which are of the same origin as our Australian word wakul.* 1 pray you to remember that, with the exception of Samoa and New Zealand, these words all come from Papuan regions and afford indirect evidence that our Australians are allied to the Papuans. As to the Maori and Samoan congeners that I have quoted, it is commonly alleged that these races are Malayo-Polyuesians, on the theory that their languages are of Malay origin f; but let us look at this theory in the light of our present inquiry. It is said that the Polynesians are Malays. WeJl, let us see. If the Samoans are Malays, then the Duke of York Islanders are Malays; for the word mu a, which is essential to the Samoan language, is the same word as the Tukiok muka ; therefore the Papuans of that island also are jNIalays ! But the corresponding Malay word is mu la, 'in front,' ' foremost,' 'at first,' and it is certain that muka can never be formed from mula ; for, while Tc may become Z, the letter Z, when once established in a word, cannot revert to h. Thus the Malay language might be said to have come from the Duke of York Island, as least so lar as the evidence of this word goes ! But I acknowledge that they may both be taken from one common source, and this, I believe, is the true solution of the question. Where shall we find that common source? The root-form of mula, muka, mua, and of all the others, is ma, mu, and if we can find that root, it will be easy to understand how all these words have been formed independently from that original root ; and it will then be unnecessary to say that the Samoan language is of Malay origin, or that the Papuans of the New Britain isles are using a Malay language. I now take you to Southern India, to a group of languages called the Dravidian, occupying the mountains of the Dekkan, and the coasts both to the east and the west of that. Some of these Dravidian tribes are considered by the best authorities to be certainly negroid, and, in England, Prof. Plower, from an exami- nation of their crania, has classed them r.s kinsmen of the Australians. One of the most cultivated languages of the group is the Tamil, and the Tamilians are known to have class-marriage laws similar to those in Fiji and Australia. Now for ' first' the Tamil says mudal, and this mudal is a verbal noun meaning 'a beginning,' ' priority ' in time or place. The root is mu, and dal is a formative syllable. The m u is, without doubt, our Australian * These anJ all other words from the New Britain ami Duke of York Islands I quote from manuscript dictionaries of these languages, prepared by the missionaries there. t The name and authority of K. Wilhelm von Humboldt first gave this theory a standing ; but we have now miach fuller materials on which to form an independent judgment. IXTEODrCTIOJf. ' XXVU root ma, mo, mu. The late Bishop Caldwell says* — "Mudal is connected with the Tamil postposition miin, 'before'; mudal is used as the root of a new A-erb ' to begin.' Mu evidently signifies 'priority,' and may be the same as the Tamil mu, 'to be old,' mudu, ' antiquity.' " I think there is a better derivation than that. The Sanskrit miila means ' origin, cause, commencement,' and is the same word as the Malay mul a already referred to, aud both of these I take from the Sanskrit root-word bhii, 'to begin to be, to become, to be,' with which is connected the Latin fore (fuere), 'to be about to be,' fui, &c. From bhu come such Sanskrit words as bhava, ' birth, origin,' bhavana, 'caus- ing to be,' b huvauytt, 'a master or lord ' (rf. piran, &c.), and many other words in the Aryan languages. At all events, wakul and these other Australian words for ' one ' are assuredly from the same root as the Dravidian mu-dal, 'first,' 'a begin- nig.' I, for one, cannot believe that words so much alike both in root and meaning should have sprung up by accident over so vast an area as India, Malaya, Kew Gruinea, Fiji, Samoa, and back again to the New Hebrides and Australia. The only rational explanation seems to me to be that these races were all at one time part of a common stock, that in their dispersion they carried with them the root-words of the parent languages, and that in their new habitations they dressed out these root-words with j)refixes and affixes by a process of development, just as circum- stances required. Results. — The root in its simplest form is ha, ' to begin to be,' * to begin'; other forms are ho, bu, hi ; ma, mo, mu ; fa,fu, vu ; wa. The nearest approach to the Australian ?«fl^?;/, 'one,' is the Ebudan hoJcol, 'one,' and the Tukiok maTcal-a, 'for the first time,' but many other cognate words are found all over the South Seas in the sense of 'first,' 'begin.' The Tasmanian mara-wa, 'one,' is the same as the Tukiok mar a, ' for the first time,' and mara, 100; and in New South AVales, mara-gai means ' first ' in the Mudgee dialect. 2. Tlie Numeral Tico. Almost the only other Australian numeral is b til a, ' two.' It is true that several tribes have a distinct word for ' three,' and a few have a word for ' five ' taken from the word ' hand,' but in most parts of Australiii the number ' three ' is expressed by ' two-one,' four ' by ' two-two,' ' five ' by ' two-two-one ' and so on. But the wore bula is universal ; with various changes of termination, it exists from Tasmania in the extreme south, right on to the Gulf *A11 my knowledge of the Dravidian race and language comes from Dr. Caldwell's "Comparative Dictionary of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages ; second edition ; London : Triibner and Co., lS7i>." In this Introduction, I quote from the notes which I made when I read the book some years ago, and now I cannot always tell whether I am quoting his words or only my own statement of them. XXVin INTEODUCTIOX. of Carpentaria. If you ask me why there is only one word for ' two,' while the words for ' one ' are so numerous and different, I reply that, in other languages, and especially in those of the Turanian family, there is a similar diversity in the words for 'one'; and the reason is this, that, wherever there is a con- siderable number of words for ' origin,' ' commencement.' ' before,' &c., there will be a similar variety in the words for ' one,' which are formed from them. But the range of ideas for ' two ' is somewhat limited ; the only ideas possible are ' repe- tition,' or 'following,' or something similar. Let me show you this by a few examples. The Hebrew s hen aim, ' two,' is a dual form, and is connected with the verb shanah, ' to repeat;' the Latins also say 'vigesimo altero anno' to mean in the 'twenty second year;' but alter is 'the other of two,' and in ^French and English it means to 'change;' and secundus in Latin comes from sequor, 'I follo\y.' Thus we shall find that words for 'two' are the same as words for ' follow,' ' repeat,' ' another,' ' again,' ' also,' ' and,' and the like ; and most of these ideas are usually expressed by forms of the same root-word. As to the form of the word bula*, we have here no friendly karaji to tell us whether the -la is radical or not. I think that the -la is formative. The Tasmanian bu-ali (Milligan writes it pooalih) is probably the nearest approach to the original form, the bu being the root and the -ali the affix. In the Tasmanian pia-wa, the pia seems to me to be only a dialect form of bula, for the liquid I easily drops out, and in the Aryan languages a modified ?< approaches very nearly to the sound of * (cf. Eng., sir) ; in the Polynesian, i often takes the place of u. Thus bula would become bu-a, bi-a, pia. The syllable tea in pia-wa, as in marawa, 'one,' is only a suffix, the same as ba in our colony. All the other words for ' two ' are only lengthened forms of bula. As to the kindred of bula, I find that, in the Papuan island of Aneityum (New Hebrides), the word in-mul is ' twins'; there, in is the common prefix used to form nouns; the mul that * In my manuscript nobes I have the following forms : — From Tasmania, bura, pooali, piawah ; Victoria, buliim, pollit; South Australia, bulait, purlaitye ; New South Wales, blula, buloara, bul]oara-bo; Southern Queensland, bular, pubul, bularre, bulae; Northern Queens- land, bularoo. It is evident that some of these words have been written down by men who were not acquainted with the phonology of languages, and that the spelling does not adequately represent the real sounds. This is generally the case in vocabularies of Australian words, and is a source of much perplexity to linguists. One of the commonest mistakes is bular for bula. In pronouncing that word, our blackfellows let the voice dwell on the final a, and an observer is apt to think that this is the sound of ar ; just as a Cockney will say ' idear ' for ' idea,' ' mar ' for ' ma,' or ' pianer ' for 'piano.' In one vocabulary that I have seen almost every word terminates with r on this principle 1 IKTBODUCTIOX. 5X1X remains is bul, 'two'; there also um, for mu. is 'and'; in the other islands it is ma, mo. In New Britain, bal-et is 'again,' bul-ug, 'again,' 'also,' 'another,' mule, 'again,' biila, ' another,' ' an additional one ' (cf. ma, ' and '), bula, ka-bila, ' also' (with -bila c/! Tasm. pia), muru, 'to follow.' In Samoan, muli is 'to follow,' f o'i is ' also,' ulu-ga (for f ulu-) is a ' couple.' The Fijian has tau-muri, 'behind ' in the sense of ' following,' just as tau-mada in Fijian means 'first' or 'before.' The Malay- has ulang, 'to repeat,' and pula, 'again, too, likewise.' In some of the Himalayan regions, to which a portion of the aboriginal inhabitants of India was driven bj the Aryan invasion, buli, pli, bli means ' four,' that is, as I suppose, ' two-twos,' — a dual form of ' two.' It seems to me that the Dravidian words maru, 'to change,' muru, 'to turn,' muri, 'to break in two,' are from the same root as bula, and that root is to be found in Aryan words also, such as Lat. mu-to, mu-tu-us; for there is a Sk. root ma, ' to change.' It is known that the Sanskrit dvi, dva, ' two,' gives the Greek dis (for dvis), 'twice,' and the adjective diss os, ' double,' and that dvi s gives the Latin bis; but the Sk. dva also gives the Grothic twa, 'other,' 'different,' and the Eug. twain, 'two,' as well as words for 'two' in many languages. Hence I think that our root bu, b a, gives the Samoan vae-g a ' a division,' vaega-lerau, ' the half,' and other words ; because Avben people are 'at one' on any subject they are agreed, but when they are at 'twos and threes' they are divided in opinion ; and in the same sense sense I would connect the Lat. divide with the Sk. root dvi. Probably the Latin varius and the English variance are connected with the root ba in that same sense. I would only add a line to say that our blackfellows use the word bula also to mean 'many.' I do not believe that this is the same word as bula, 'two.' I consider it to come from the same root as the Sanskrit pulu, puru, ' many,' and that root, under the form of par, pi a, pie, plu, has ramifications all through the Aryan languages in the sense of ' fill, full, much, more,' &c. The eastern form of this root gives, in New Britain, bula,' more,' mag,' many,' b u k a, ' full ' ; in Motu, b a d a is ' much,' and hutu-ma, 'many,' ' multitude '; in Aneityum, a-lup-as (lup=plu), 'much'; in Fiji, vu-ga, ' many'; in Duke of York Island, bu-nui, 'to increase.' In Dravidian, pal is 'many,' pal-gu, ' to become many, to multiply, to increase.' It thus ap- pears that the Australian bula, 'many,' has kindred, not only in Melanesia and the Dekkan, but also all through the Aryan region. Results. — The root is hu, which denotes ' repetition,' ' change,' and this is the idea which resides in the Hebrew numeral ' two,' and in the Latin alter, ' second '; another, but cognate, idea for XXX INTRODUCTION. 'two' or 'second' is 'that which /b7Zoi<'.?'; of the root hu other forms are hu, hi, j)i, ma, ono, mn, fu, fo, and it ; from via, mu, come Dravidian words meaning ' to turn,' ' to change '; and from the same root-forms there are, in the JSew Hebrides, New Britain, and Polynesia, numerous words in the sense of 'follow,' 'again,' ' another,' "^a couple,' 'also.' The Melanesian word mu-le, 'again,' and the Malay ^;?f-Zrr, 'again,' connect themselves, not only with the Dravidian via-ru, mu-ru, but also with the Sanskrit word 2)u-nar, 'back,' 'again,' and also with the Greek ^ja-Z/w, 'again.' YI. Other Test-words. Words for ' Water; 'Blind; 'Eye: (a). lu dealing with the Australian words for 'water,' 'fire,' 'sun,' 'eye,' &e., I must use brevity. All these can be proved to have their roots in India, and to have stems and branclies from these roots in Aryan Europe, in Malay lands, and in the islands of the South Seas. ¥irst, let US'* take uj) the word for ' water.' Collins quotes bado as the Port Jackson word for 'water'; others write it badu ; it is found in various parts of our colony and in AYestern Australia. The root is ba, ma, and the du is a suffix; du is also in Dravidian a formative to neuter nouns. The root ma means 'to be liquid,' 'to flow.' It is a very old word; for the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions have mami, 'waters,' and this is a plural by reduplication; the Hebrew has mo, ma(i), 'water,' mo a, 'to flow'; the ancient Egyptian has mo, 'water,' Avhence, according to some, the name Moses ; the Sanskrit has ambu (am ^or ma, by metathesis), 'water;' the Keltic has amhainn, abhuinn, 'a river,' whence comes the river-name, 'Avon.' From ma come the words wai and vai which are so common for 'water' in the J>J^ew Hebrides and in the Polynesian islands, and from the same root, in a sense known to the Arabs, by an appropriate euphemism, as 'the water of the feet,' come the Melanesian and Polynesian words mi, mim, mi mi, miaga, &c., the Sanskrit mih and the Keltic mun. From am (=rab = ap) comes tlie Sanskrit plural form tip as, 'water,' while from ma may come the Latin mad-idiis, 'wet.' We found that wa-kul, 'one,' comes from root ba, ma; so, from the root of ba-du, comes the Australian word wa-la, which means 'rain,' and in some places, ' water.' As to the kindred of our Sydney badu, I would remind you that ' water,' ' rain,' ' sea,' and ' wave,' are cognate ideas ; hence the Samangs, who are the jS'egritos of the peninsula of Malacca, say bat-eao for 'water'; the Motu of New Gruinea say medu, 'rain,' batu-gu, 'shower'; the Aneityumese in-cau-pda,* 'rain'; * Call is the Fijian tan, 'to fall as rain,' and -pda is the same as the New Britain word Lata, 'rain'; au in Samoan is 'a current.' rS'TEODirCTIOX. XXXI Ne^v Britain says bata, 'to rain,' ta-va, 'sea,' and the Maori say awa, 'water.' As a coincidence, it is remarkable that the old high Grerman word awa {cf. the Ger. wasser, Eug. water) means 'water,' and bedu is quoted as an old Phrygio-Macedoniau word meaning ' water.' Some observers have remarked that our blacks soon master the dialects spoken b7other tribes, and have ascribed this to a natural readiness in learning languages. But the present inquiry shows that there is another cause for this. A man or woman of the Sydney tribe, which said ba-du for 'water,' would easily recognize ba-na in an adjacent tribe as the same word, the termination only being different, just as it is not hard for Englishmen to re- member that the German wasser is water, and that brennen means burn. 80 also, a Ivamalarai black, who says mu-ga, would soon know the Wiradhari mu-pai; and elsewhere mat a, 'one,' is not much different from meta and matata for 'one,' or even from the Tasmanian mar a. Results. — Ba, ma, mo, am, ap are forms of an original root meaning 'water,' 'that wdiich is liquid and flows'; derived forms are mi, me, tea; from ba comes the Sydney word ha-clu, 'water'; the du here is a suffix in Dravidian also, and exists in the New Guinea word ba-tu, elsewhere ba-ta; the Samang Negritos say bat- eao ; the old language of Java has banii, 'water,' where the n has the liquid sound of (jn, and takes the place of d in the suffix du. Erom all this it is clear that our Australian badu is of good and ancient lineage. (i.) In the Maitland district of New Soutb Wales a ' blind ' man is called boko; in Polynesia poko is 'blind,' or, more fully, mata-poko, mata-po, 'eyes-blind.' As there can be no suspicion of borrowing here, how is so striking a resemblance to be accounted for? Do you say that it is a mere coincidence? AVell, if so, let us examine the matter. In the Ivamalarai region, (see map) mu-ga means 'blind,' and in the Mudgee district, mu-pai is 'dumb'; in Santo (New Hebrides), mog-moga is 'deaf; in Erromanga, another island of that group, busa is 'dumb' ; in Eiji, bo-bo is 'blind'; in Duke of York Island, ba-ba is 'deaf; in Sanskrit, mu-k a is 'dumb'; in Greek, mu-dos, mu-tis is 'dumb,' Lat. mut-us. In Keltic, bann is 'to bind, tie,' balbh is 'dumb,' and bodhar is 'deaf.' Now, there can be little doubt that in all these words the root is the same (mu, mo ; ba, bo, bu; po), and yet these words extend over a very wide area indeed, from Tahiti rii;'ht across through India to Greece, Italy, and even to John o' Groat's. The meanings are ' blind,' ' deaf,' ' dumb,' and yet the root is the same. The general root-meaning which suits them all is 'to close,' ' to bind' ; this meaning shows itself in the Greek verb mu-G — from which mudos comes — * to close the eyes or mouth,' and in the Sanskrit mu, 'to bind'; OF THR 'TJiri7BE XXXU INTEODUCTION. similarly the Hebrew (a) illiim, 'dumb,' comes from the verb alam, 'to bind,' 'to be silent'; in the Gospels, the blind man's eyes were ' opened,' and Zacharias, who had been for a time dumb, had ' his mouth opened and his tonj^ue loosed.' The root of our Australian words boko, muga, is therefore the same as the Sanskrit mu, 'to bind.' Trom the same source come the Samoan pu-puni, 'to shut,' po, 'night'; the Aneityumese at-apn-es (apn=pan), 'to shut,' na.-poi, 'dark clouds'; the I^ew Britain bog, 'clouded,' and the Tukiok bog, 'to cover up'; c/! the Sanskrit bhuka, 'darkness.' In Aneityum, a-pat is 'dark,' 'deaf,' and po-p is 'dumb.' In Malay, puk-kah (c/!mu-ga) is 'deaf,' and bu-ta is 'blind'; ba-bat {cf. ba-ba, bo-bo) is to ' bind '; Fiji has bu-ki-a, ' to tie,' ' to fasten '; New Zealand has pu-pu, 'to tie in bundles,' pu, ' a tribe,' 'bunch,' 'bundle.' It is even possible that our English words bind, bunch, bundle, come, through the Anglo-Saxon, from this same root, ba, bu, mu. I suppose that these examples will sufEce to prove that the similarity between the Australian boko and the Polynesian, poko is not a mere coincidence. AVhere have we room now for the theory that the natives of the South Sea Islands are of Malay origin ? I might, with equal justice, say that they came from the Hunter Eiver district in Australia, if I were to look only at the words boko and poko ! JResiiUs. — The ideas ' blind,' ' deaf,' ' dumb,' may be reduced to the simple idea ' bound ' — the eyes, ears, mouth, or tongue 'closed, bound, tied.' This idea is, in the Aryan languages, expressed mostly by mu, but, in our Eastern languages, by ha, ho; mu, mo \ pu, po ; all these root-forms ai'e identical, and are the basis of cognate words spreading from the region of ' ultima ThuJe'' across the world to Tahiti. Can this be the result of accident, or of the spontaneous creation of language in several different centres ? Is it not rather proof of a common origin ? Even in the development of the root, there is a singular corres- pondence; for the Sanskrit adds -ka, and so do the Malay, the Kamalarai, the Santoan, and the Polynesian; others use t for Jc. (c.) The word for ' eye ' also may be useful as a sample test-word, for it is not likely to be subject to the influences of change to which I have already referred. In Tasmania a word for ' eye ' is mongtena, and the common word in all Australia is mi or mil, or some other simple derived form from the root mi. Mongtena is in ]VIilligan's "Vocabulary of the Dialects of the Aboriginal Tiibes of Tasmania," but I have never found that Vocabulary to be satisfactory either as to its jdionetics or its critical sagacity. I therefore suppose that the real form is ma-ag-ta-ua ; for mong-ta- linna is there the word for 'eyelash,' and mong-to-ne is 'to see'; at all events, I consider ma to be its original stem, while the INTKODrCTIOIf. XXXIU Australian stem is mi, although there are, in varioiis parts of the continent, words with the ma stem. The Australian words for ' eye,' then, are mi, mia, mikal, miki, rair, mil, mial, mina, minuk, miko, mirang; maal, mail ; meur, mobara. These words extend from Port Darwin right across to Bass's Straits. Several Avords formed from the same root mean the ' face,' and compound words are: — wirtin-mirnu, 'eyelid,' turna-mirnu, 'lower eyelid,' wicin-mir, 'eye-lash,' genin-mir, 'eye-brow,' kraji-mring, 'white of the eye,' daami-mir, 'the temples,' katen-mirnu, ' a tear.' Now, it is evident that all these words for ' eye ' come from the root ma, mi, me, mo, and that those formed from mi are the most common. This ma is quite sporadic ; for, in Samoan, which I take to be original and typical Polynesian, ma means ' clean,' 'pure,' 'bright-red,' main a is 'to shine,' said of fire ; ma-lama means either ' the moon' or ' a light'; va-ai is ' to see,' and so on ; the Ebudan ma is ' to see'; in New Britain me-me is 'scarlet,' ' bright-red,' and with the meaning of ' red ' the Ebudan has me-me-a, miel, mial a; in Samoan, mu-mvi is 'to burn bi'ightly,' aud mii-mu is 'red,' and the Aneityumese ama-mud is 'to burn ' transitively; the Maori has ma-hana, 'warm'; Papuan for 'eye' is mata, mara, maka, mana; the Malay has mata, 'eye,' and this is the sporadic word used everywhere for ' eye.' From all these words, it appears that ' see,' ' clear, ' shine,' 'eye,' 'burn,' 'tire,' 'red,' are allied terms, and that the root-idea from which they all proceed is that of ' shining brightly.' Now, so far as the eye is concerned, that is an appropriate designation for it ; and this appropriateness is elsewhere confirmed by language ; for the Sanskrit akshi, 'eye,' Latin oculus, and the Latin acer, ' sharp,' are founded on the root ak, meaning ' keenly bright' or 'sharp,' and the English word 'sheen' is, in Lowland Scotch, ap- plied to the ' bright' part of the eye. Now, I find that meaning in the Sanskrit bha,, 'to shine,' which is just our root ma. Sanskrit derivatives from this bha are bha, 'a star' (with which compare the Australian mirri, 'the stars'), bhaga, 'the sun,' and bha, 'light,' bhanu, bhfima, 'light,' 'the sun,' ' passion.' The Greek phai-no is from the same root. The Dra,vidian language, like the Australian, seems to prefer the form mi ; it has min, 'to glitter,' and hence mina is ' a fish,' so called from its phosphorescent scales. A Samoan word 'to glisten,' 'to shine,' is ila-i la, applied to the^ eyes, and in the Papuan of Tagula (south-east cost of New Guinea) ira is 'bright'; at Port Essington (north coast of Australia) ira is the 'eye,' and in some parts of New South Wales ire, yir-oka is the 'sun.' In the Wiradhari dialect, iradu is 'day,' and the Ebudan of Erromanga has ire, ' to-day.' Further, a common word for 'eye' in Queensland is dilli ; and [c] XXXIV IXTRODrCTIOX. I liavo no doubt that this is the same Dravidian termination -illi which -we shall tind in ta-killi-ko and in many other Awa- bakal words, but here added on to the same root which we find in the Sanskrit di(p), 'to shine.' The Ebudan of Baki has sembi to mean 'fire'; now sembu in Dravidian means 'red.' In Australia, a very genei'al word for 'fire' is wi, win ; in the north-west of Tasmania it is win-alia ; these I take to be from the same root as our mil, 'the eye,' and the Dravidian min. In Tasmania also, tintya means 'red'; to which cognates are the Sanskrit damh, dah, ' to burn,' dams, dame, 'to bite,' 'to see'; in Tamil tind-u, is 'to kindle,' tittu, 'to whet'; cf. Anglo-Saxon tendan, 'to kindle,' English tinder. Besides mata, the Maoris have another word for 'eye,' kanohi, which much resembles the Dravidian kan, 'the eye,' k an, 'to see '; and the root of kan may be the same syllable as in Sanskrit ak-shi, 'eye,' the ak being by metathesis changed into ka. At all events, the root kan is abundantly prevalent in the sporadic languages; for the Maori itself has kana, 'to stare wildly,' that is, ' to look keenly'; ka, 'to burn'; ka-ka, 'red-hot'; kana-pa, 'bright,' 'shining'; kana-ku, 'fire'; and cognate Polynesian dialects have kano-i-mata, 'the pupil (i.e., 'the sheen") of the eye'; 'a'ano, certain ' red berries,' ' the flesh of animals,' from its redness; ka-napa-napa, 'to glitter'; ka-n a pa, 'lightning.' The simple root ka gives la, ra, 'the sun,' and all the Polynesian words connected with these forms. Nor is this root-word ka, kan confined to Polynesian dialects ; in Ebudan, ' fire ' is in-caj), kapi, kapu, gapu, av, avi; and the Papuan dialects have for 'fire,' kova, kai-wa ; for ' burn,' ogabu, igabi. xVnd kai-o in Greek is ' I burn.' It is interesting to know, also, that in the states which form the Himalayan boimdary of India the woi-ds for ' eye ' are m i, mik, mighi, mak, mo, mak, mo; and, farther east, in Cochin- China and Tonkin, mot, mok, mu. It thus appears that, on the wliole our common word mil, 'the eye,' is more akin to the non- Aryan races of India — the representatives of its earlier population. In closing this section of my subject, I presume I need scarcely say that the evidence before us drawn from the words for ' water,' ' blind,' and ' eye,' fully justifies the opinion that the Australian languages are not isolated, but that, in their essential root-words, they have a close relation to the languages of the Southern Seas and to similar root-words in the languages of the great peninsula of India. I cannot conceive it to be possible that our blackfellows should have, by chance, invented words which, when analysed, show the underlying ideas ex])ressed by them to be the same as those root-words spread overso vast an area elsewhere. iNTEODrcTiON". xxxr YII. MlSCELLAIfEOUS TeST "WoRDS. (a.) There are just two or three other words which I would glance at very rapidly. The Malay kutu means ' louse '; in all Polynesia also that word means 'louse'; therefore, as some persons say, the South 8ea Islanders inust be Malay-Polynesians. But I find that in Aueityum also, a Papuan region, in-ket is 'louse,' and in South Australia kiita, and in other parts of Australia, kii-lo, gullun. To complete the analogy, tliese per- sons should now say that the Papuans of the New Hebrides and the blacks of South Australia are Malay. This looks like a reductio ad absurdum. (5.) The word kutu reminds me that there are some very un- savoury words, which are a strong proof of identity of origin among races ; for, if these words have not come from one common source, it is scarcely possible to imagine how they are so much alike. For instance, gu-nung here means stercus Jiominis aut hesfiac ; in Sanskrit the root-verb is gu. In Samoan, (k)i-no is ' excrement,' the same word as gu-nung. Among our Port Stephens blacks, the worst of the evil spirits is called gunuug- dh.a]iia^^'' sfercus edens.' In Hebrew, a variant for the name Beelzebub is Beelzebiil, which means dominus stercoris. Again, kak is an Aryan root-verb; in New Gruinea it becomes tage {t for k, as is common) ; in New Britain, tak ; in Samoa, ta'e ; m Aueityum, no-hok and na-heh. The Sanskrit bhaga, which I need not translate, is in Piji maga ; and in Tasmania maga; and pi, mi, as I have already shown, is as old as the Assyrians. (c.) The Tasmanian word for ' sun ' is pugganubrana or pukkanebrena or pallanubrana or panubrana, according to Milligan's list. Of these, the first is clearly the original form, for the last is merely a contraction of it, and the third substitutes liorg. The last syllable -n a is formative, and is exceedingly common in Tasmanian Avords ; it is, I may observe in passing, exactly the same syllable which is used as a common sufiix to form nouns in New Guinea and in the Albannic group, and in a slightly different way also in Aueityum. The remainder of the Tasmanian word is pugga and nubra. Now, nubra or nubre in Tasmanian is ' the eye,' but the vocabularies of that language do not enlighten me as to the meaning of pugga. I ■would write it biig-a, and connect it with the New Britain word bug (pronounced bung), which means ' day'; thus biiganubra would mean ' the eye of day,' that is, ' the sun '; and that is exactly the meaning of mata-ari, the Malay word for the ' sun.' The Ebudan of Santo has bog, ' day,' and the Fijian for ' sun' is mata-ni-senga. Bug is allied to the Dravidian pag-al, * day.' Bug I take from the Sk. bha, ' to shine '; with this com- pare the derivation of the English word ' day.' 5XXV1 INTRODUCTION. ((?.) In the Kamalarai dialect (N.S.W.), kagal means 'bad,' 'no good'; the -gal here, as elsewhere, is formative, and ka is the root. Now ka is a ►Sk. prefix meaning ' bad '; in Tiji, 'bad' is ca, and in the New Hebrides, sa ; in New Britain it is a-ka-ina, {e.) The Awabakal word for ' good ' is murrarag ; in Wirad- hari, it is marang ; in Kamalarai, it is murraba; the Port Jackson tribe at Sydney called it bujari. The root is ma, mu, bn ; Mr, Threlkeld's spelling should thus have been ma-ra-rag, that is, ma-ra with the last syllable reduplicated and -ag added ; and murraba should be ma-ra-ba ; in bu-jari, the -jari is a very common formative. Analogues to these are: — Albannic, bo-ina, 'good'; Ebudan (Aneityum), up-ene (u p /or bu) ; Malay, ba-ik; Papuan, mage, bo-en a, na-mo, na-ma. The Sanskrit bha-dra means 'best,' ' happy,' ' well '; and the insular Keltic ma-th is 'good,' 'wholesome,' 'happy.' I believe that the Latin bonus (of which Latin etymologists cannot trace the origin) is connected with these ancient roots; for the Keltic ma-th, z.e., mad, would easily give bon-us. {/.) The Wiradhari balun, 'dead,' seems to be the same word as the Dra vidian ma-1, 'to die,' and of the same origin as the Polynesian ma-te, ' dead,' and the Malay ma-ti, mang-kat, 'dead.' The old Assyrian has maatu, 'to die,' and the Sanskrit mri (mar), the Malay mi-ta, the Hebrew miith, miitli, are all cognate verbs. The Keltic has bath, bas, 'death.' ((/.) Korien is an Awabakal negative. If it were an Ebudan word, its form in -en would make it a verbal noun equivalent to ' the denying.' Now, it happens that, in the Motvi dialect of New Guinea, gorea means ' to deny,' and the Maori ha-hore or here means 'no' (A for k), and whaka-kore-kore, 'to deny.' The Ebudan of Efate has koro, 'to deny.' Another Awabakal nega- tive is kya-wai, where the kya is for ka. The Maori ka-ua (imperative or optative) also means 'not.' (h.) Wiyalli is to 'speak.' The Sanskrit vad, va^, 'to spei ,k,' would give the wiy a, and the -alii is the usual verbal foi-m. The Albannic has veti, 'speak.' Fiji has va-ka, 'to say,' and vei wall, 'to joke,' where vei is a reciprocal. The Awabakal wi- ya means ' say,' ' tell'; New Britain has wi, ' to tell, to inform.' {k.) The Awabakal bun means 'to strike,' 'to beat,' ' to kill.' With this compare the Malay bunoh, 'to kill'; the Albannic bua-tari, 'to destroy,' and we-umi, 'to fight,' 'to kill,' of which the we is reciprocal. (Z.) For an adult ' woman,' the Wiradhari says inar ; the Port Jackson (Sydney) sub-tribe said din or dhin* ; other localities say yinan, ina ; thus the J is radical. Several districts, far apart, in *Hence comes the word jin — so commonly used in Australia to mean the 'wife' of a black man (kuri). INTEODTTCTIOlf. XXXVH British ISTew Guinea say ina-gu, 'my mother,' ia ina-na, 'his mother,' in e, 'mother,' where the ina is our Australian word; and, in Samoa, tina is 'mother.' Are these languages not akin? Is it possible that the Papuans, the Polynesians, and the Australians could have bori'owed from one another so essential a woi'd as ' woman,' ' mother "? Moreover, in Tamil, inu means 'to bring forth young' [cf. Eng. yean), and in Malay Induis a word for 'mother.' Are these, too, not akin to our Australian word 1 VIII. The Pronouns as Test Words. There are few languages in which the pronouns of the first and the second persons are declined throughout by the inflexion of the same base-stem. In the Aryan family, there are at least two bases for each of them, and these are often so disguised by the inflexions that it is diflicult to detect them. In English, for instance, there does not seem to be any etymological connection between / and me and loe, and a similar diversity exists in the Latin ego, mihi and oios, tu and vos ; in the Greek ego, viou, noi, hemeis ; in the Sanskrit aham, mam, vayam, or tvad and yush- mad. In Melanesian regions, the corresponding Papuan, Albannic and Ebudan pronouns are apparently considered so volatile and evanescent that a strong demonstrative is added as a backbone for their support, and thus the pronoun itself almost disappears from view. But many of these Melanesian pronouns usually have two forms — a longer and a shorter ; the longer and stronger is used for emphasis and can stand alone ; the shorter is suffixed to verbs and nouns, and it commonly shows the stem of the pronoun in its primary state. In Latin and Greek, we are already familiar with the strengthening use of demonstratives as regards these two personal pronouns, for we know that ego-ipse, ego-met, vos-met- ipsi, ego-ge, and the like, are used. As examples of the shorter Melanesian forms, I cite the Aneityumese etma-k, ' my father,' etma-m, 'thy father,' etma-n, 'his father,' where the k, m, and n repx-esent the three pronouns of which the longer possessives are iinyak, unyum, o un; corresponding suffixes are seen in the Papuan (Murua Is.) nima-gu ' my hand,' nima-mu, ' thy hand,' nima-na, 'his hand.' In Melanesian languages generally, either the separable possessive or its suffix form is used with nouns, although the one and the other use convey a slightly different shade of meaning; thus, the Tukiok dialect says either a nug ruma or a ruma-ig, 'my house,' and the Fijian something similar; but the Papuans say ia nima-na, 'his hand,' ina-gu, 'my mother.' Each dialect in this volume has some peculiarity ; for the Wiradhari has something which looks like suffixed . pronouns,* * See girugal-dw on page 111 of this Appendix, gaddal-rf^on page 112, ,and other instances in the same section. SXXVm INTRODUCTION. and the Awabakal has a 'conjoined dual'; yet they all have long forms of the first and the second ])ronouns to be used alone or for the sake of emphasis, while other short forms always go with a verb as its subject. I add a list of the pronouns found in the whole of the Australian, Papuan, and Melanesian regions, so far as they are as yet known to linguists ; for, although I shall make only a limited use of this list at present, yet it may be useful to students of language in Britain and elsewhere, esjtecially as the sources fi-om which I have compiled it are not generally accessible, Australian Pronouns. The Awabakal pronouns are : — Singular. Dual. Plural. 1st. — G-atoa, bag, emmo-ug, tia Bali, gali Geen, gear-un 2nd. — G-into, bi, giro-ug Bula Nura 3rd. Masc- — Niuwoa, noa, gi- '\ ko-ug, bon (_ Buloara 3rd. Fem. — Boun-toa, boun- 1 Bara For the purpose of comparison, I give the forms of these two pronouns as found in other parts of Australia : — New South Wales. 1st Pronoun. Sing. — Gaiya, ga, gaan, gai, iya, gata, gaiagug ; gadthu, nathu, nathuna, athu, addu, thu, athol ; mi, mina, mitua, motto; imigdu, ganna, nanna; gera ; maiyai; iaka ; giamba; gulagi. 2nd Pronoun. Sing. — Gind-a, (-u), yind-a, (-u), ind-a, (-e, -o, -u), nind-a, (-u); idno ; numba; wonda; nindrua, natrua ; yindigi, indiga ; youra; beai, biibla ; wiya, Avalbo ; gin ; imiba ; gindigug ; nagdu ; gulaga. 3rd Pro. ; Si^ig. — Genua, noa, niuoa ; Plu. — Garnia, bara. Victoria. 1st Pronoun. /S'm^r.— Gaddo, nadtha, gio, gain, gatiik; waan, aan, winnak; yatti, yanga, yandog, nitte ; naik, naic, niak, ge, gen ; wokok, yer- rowik, wolunyek, tiarmek ; biirdop. 2nd Pronoun. Sing. — Gind-a, (-e, -i,- o, -u), ginduk; nind-i, (-e); ginna, ginya; nin, nindo, ninan, niam, winiain; yerrowin; tiarmin; waar, waanyen; wolanig ; nutuk, utiik; mirambina ; gulum ; yerally. 3rd Pro.; Sing. — Nunthi, munniger, kiga; Plu. Murra-milla,kinyet. rUTEODUCTIOK. XXXIX I'asmania. Lst Pro.; Sing. — Mina, mana, mena. 2nd Pro.; Sing. — Nina. Central and South Australia. 1st Pronoun. Sing. — Gai, gann-a, (-i), ginyi, onye, yiga, yinna, ini, unnyi ; gapp-a, (-U), gaap, appa, aupa ; gatto, attlio, attu, autu, altliu ; guca; ti; iyie. 2ncl Pronoun. Sing. — Grina, nia, nini, nina, yina ; giniba, imba, umpu, unga, unni, yinyi ; nindo, yundo ; tidni, yidni, yundru, andru, gundru ; wuru, nuru, nuni ; canna. 3rd Pro.; Sing. — Nulia, kitye, pa, panna, ninni ; Plu. — Kinna(r), ka(r), pa(r)na, nana, ya(r)dna. Western Australia. 1st Pronoun. Sing. — Gatlia, gatuko, natto, gadjo, ajjo, ganya, guanga, ganga, gana, gonya, nanya, nunna ; garmi, geit ; gi, gida, gika, gig. 2nd Pronoun. Sing. — Ginda, ginna, yinda, yinna, nini, ninya, niya ; ginduk, yinnuk, nonduk, nundu, nunda, nunak; janna. Plural — NuraL 3rd Pro.; Sing. — Bal ; /%(.— Balgun, bullalel. Queejisland. 1st Pronoun. Sing. — Gaia, gia, gio, nigo ; ganga, ongya, unoa ; nutta, uttliu,. uda ; yundu, giba, ipa ; nia, ia, niu, iu, iuwa, yo ; biivko ; kuronya; giingiil. 2nd Pronoun. Shig. — Ninda, inda, imba; yinda, (-i), ind-a, (-i); yindua, yiindu, indu ; innu, iu ; inknu, ingowa, enowa, nowa ; nino ; nay on ; nomun ; yuniir ; tini ; Av^ologa. 3rd Pro.; Sing. — Ugda, unda ; Flu,. — Ganna. With tliese Australian Pronouns, compare the Dravidiax Proxouxs. 1st Pronoun. Sing. — Tamil — Niin, yan, en, en ; Canarese — an, yan, na, nanu, en, ene ; Tulu — -yan, yen, e ; Malayalam — alam, nan, en, en, ena, eni, ini ; Telugu — nenu, ne, enu, e, na, nu, ni ; Tuda — an, en, eni, ini ; Kota — ane, en, eni, ini ; Gund — anna, na, a]i, na ; Ku — anu, na, in, e; Rajmaha,!- — en; Oraon — enan. Plu. — Memu, amat, yam, am, amu, nam, njingal, navu, iivu. Xl INTBODUCTION. 2nd Pronoun. Sivfj. — Tamil — Ni, nin, nun, oi, i, ay, oy ; Canarese — nin, ni, ninu, nin, ay, e, iye, i, i ; Tulu, i, nin, ni ; Malayjilam — ni, nin ; Telugu — nivu, ivu, ni, nin, vu, vi ; Tuda — ni, nin, i; Kota — ni, nin, i; Gond — imma, ni, i; Ku — inu, ni, i; Oraon — nien; Rajma- hal — nin. The Scythic of the Behistun tables has ni ; the Brahui of AfFghanistan has ni, na. Plu. — Miru, imat, nir, nivu, ii'u. With these compare corresponding pronouns from several places in British New Guinea, thus : — Papuan Pronouns. 1st. Sing. — Gai, nidu, da, yau, ye-gu, nau, nana, ara ; Dual — Gaba- gaba, ni-mo-to, noni, kaditei, vagewu ; Plu. — Ga-1-pa-ga-l-pa, 'we three,' ni-mo, 'we,' no-kaki, kita, ya-kaimi, ita. 2nd. Sing. — Gido, gi, rOu, koa, ya-kom, oa, goi, oi ; Dual — Gipel, ni- go-to, ka-mitei ; Flu. — Gita, nigo, yana, komiu, ya-kamiyi, um- ui, omi. 3rd. Sing. — la, goi, ndu, au-kaki, tenem ; Plu. — lamo, tana, nei, ya- buia, sia, idia, ila, ira, isi. Possessive forms are : — 1st. Sing. — Lau-apu, gau, moro, dai-ero, yo-gu, ge-gu, egu ; Plu. — Lai emai-apumai. ga-l-pan, yo-da, la-nambo. 2nd. Sing. — la-apuga, eke-ero, apui-ero, li-nambo, gninu, oi-amu; Plu. — Komiai, gita-munu, yai-ero, amui, ami, gami. Ebudan Pronouns. Corresponding Ebudan pronouns are : — 1st. Sing.—Ei-waM., iau, na-gku, avau, ain-yak ; short forms, na, a, ku, ne, iya, k ; Plu. — Endra, hida, riti, kito, a-kity, a-kaija, 2nd. Siiig. — Eg-ko, e-nico, jau, aiko, yik, aiek ; Plu. — Kamim, hamdi, ituma, akaua, aijaua. INTEODUCTION. xli Possessive forms are — 1st. Sing. — No-ku, his-ug, kana-ku, kona-gku, rahak, tio-ku, unyak ; Plu. — No-ra, isa-riti, kana-dro, kona-ra, otea, uja. 2nd. Sing. — No-m, liisa-m, kana-mo, kona-rai, raha-m, o un ; Plu. — No-iiim, isa-hamdi, kana-miu, kona-munu, ana, un-yimia. Fijian Proxouns. Fijian pronouns are : — Singular. Binal, First. I inchi. Koi-l--e -darn \ rxclu. Koi-keivsLV. inclu. I-ke-darvL exclu. /-keirau inclu. Kedaru exclu. Keirau Second. Koi-ke-mu-dvaM /-ie-mudrau Kemudrau Third. Koi-rniM I-rau ; drau Nom. — Kol-a-\v\ Poss. nku Obj. — Au Nom. — Ko-i-ko Poss. — -mu Obj. — Iko Ternal. Koi-h-e-diAou iToJ-keitou /-i'e-datou /-keitou Kedatou Keitou Koi-he-mu-do\\ /-Z;e-mudou Kemudou Plural. Koi-ke-da. A'oi-keimami I-ke-da. /-keimami Keda Keimami iToi-kemuni J-ke-ranni Kemuni Nom. — Ko-koya Poss. — I-keya; -na Obj. — Koya. Kau A'o-iratou Ko-i-va. I-ratou ; dratou I-ra ; dra I-ratou I-ra. t Those syllables which are printed in italics maj- be dropped off in succession for various uses of the pronouns. Demonstratives ax^e : — 0 guo, ' this, these ' ; o koya o guo, (sing.) ' this ' ; o ira o guo, 'these.' O gori, 'that, those'; o koya o gori (sing.), 'that'; o ira o gori (plu.), 'those.' Albannic Pronouns. In the Albannic (Tukiok) dialect, the pronouns are : — • Singular. Binal.* Ternal. Plural. 1st — lau, io, yo / inclu. \ exclu. da-ra mi-ra da-tul mi-tul dat me-at 2nd — U 01' ui mvi-ru mu-tul mu-at 3rd — la or i dia-ra di-tul di-at This is a long list, and yet it may be useful, as showing how- great a variety there is in the pronominal forms of the Australian and Melanesian languages. But these forms, if subjected to analysis and comparison, will be found to resolve themselves into a few simple elements. In examining the Australian pronouns now given, we must bear in mind that they are subject to some * I lyreiev Binal and Ternal, because they signify 'two (three) each time.' xlii INTEODUCTION. degree of error, wliicli affects also iiiauy other lists of Australian words. Australian vocabularies are made often by Englishmen, ■who, in wi-iting the words, follow the sounds of the vowels as used in English, and sometimes even their own vices of pi'onunciation ; for instance, k inner is written down for kinna, and i-ya for ai-ya. Again, a blackfellow, when asked to give the equivalents for English words, sometimes fails to understand, and so puts one word for another ; thus, in some lists that I have seen, the word for ' I ' is set down as meaning ' thou '; and even in printing mis- takes occur ; for, in Mr. Taplin's list of South Austi-alian dialects ' we ' is gun, and ' you ' is gun also ; the former should probably be gen ; and kambiyanna is made to mean both 'your father' and 'his father.' The Fh'st Pronoun. — Making all due allowance for such defects, I pi'oceed to examine the Australian pronouns, an;l I find that, notwithstanding the multitude of their dialect-forms, they have only a very few bases. These are, for the first pronoun — Ga-ad, ga-ta, ga-ad-du, ba, mi, mo; and, for the second pronoun — (jin, gin-da, gin-du, bi, bu, gula. I leave the demonstrative or third pronoun out of account, as it is not of so much importance to our inquiry. Now, the existence of' the base ga-ad is proved by the forms (given above), ga-an, ga-na ; the base ga-ta recurs in gatha, ga-ya, ni-te ; ga-ad-du, in gad-thu, na-thu, a-thu, ga-tu-ko, ifec. ; ba gives wa-an, a-an, and, in South Australia, ga- pa, ga-ap, a-pa; mo and mi are merely softened forms of ba, and are found in mo-to, wo-kok, mi-na, wi-nak, ga-mi. Even so unpromising a form as un-ca (Queensland) connects itself with the base ga-ta through gii-ca (South Australia); for some Melanesiaii dialects prefer to begin words with a vowel, and so transpose the letters of an initial dissyllable; thus, lin-ca is for ug-ca^ gu-ca:=ga-ta.* Most of the dialect fonns of this pronoun given above arise from the interchange of ng, n, and y ; the Wiradhari dialect, for example, has gaddu, naddu, yaddu, 'I,' and these become more liquid still in yallu, -ladu.f Let us observe here, also, that the Tasmanian forms ma-na, mi-na, ' I,' come from the base ma, mi. I have above given six bases for the first pronoun in Australian, and yet there are only two — ad or ta and ba; for mi and mo are only ba differently vocalised, and, in the other three, ga- is a prefix, as will be shown further on, while the -du of ga- ad-du is an emphatic suffix. * The Aneityumese (Ebudan) language is so fond of an initial vowel that it constantly dislocates a consonant in favour of a vom'cI. Our Australian Vocabularies in this volume have very few words beginning with vowels. + .See Appendix, page (iO. Dr. Caldwell was led into error by the form gadlu, wliich an authority told him meant ' we ' in South Australia. Used alone, it is only 'I,' for gaddu. INTEODUCTION. xliii Here comes in a most important question. Are tliese bases ta and ba exclusively Australian 1 Emphatically I say, No ; for I know that, in Samoan, ta is the pronoun ' I,' and ta (for ta-ua) is 'we two,' 'itais 'me,' and ta-tou is 'we'; la'u (i.e., ta-ku, I for d) is ' my.' I quote the Samoan as the representative of the Polynesian dialects. And yet the Maori pronouns of the first and second pronouns present some interesting features. They are : — ' I,' ' me ' — Ahau, au, awau. ' We two ' — Taua, maua. ' We ' — Tatou, matou, matau. ' My '- — Taku, toku, aku, oku, ahaku. 'Thou' — Koe ; dual, korua, j;?«., koutou. ' Your ' — -Tau, tou, au, on, takorua, takoutou. Here in 'we two,' 'we,' and 'my,' I see both of our Australian base- forms ta and ma; in 'my' I find the Australian possessive genitive suffix ku, gu* ; and in ' we ' I take the -tou to bo for tolu the Polynesian for 'three,' three being used in an indefinite way to mean any number beyond two.f Then, in Fiji, I find that 'I,' ' me ' is au, which may be for ta-u, for the binal form of it is -da-ru (i.e., da-frua, 'two'), the ternal is -da-tou (i.e., da-ftolu, 'three'), and the plural is da. In the Motu dialect of New Guinea, ' I ' is la-u, of which the plural is {inclusive) ai (for ta-i?) &n(\. {exclusive) i-ta. In other parts of New Guinea, ' I ' is d a, ya-u, na-u, na-na, la-u, and, for the plural, ki-ta, i-ta {cf. Samoan). Ebudan parallels are — ' I,' e-nau, iau, ain-ya-k ; for the plural, hi-da, ki-to, a-kity ; possessive forms are tio-ku, otea, u-ja. The Tukiok forms iau, io, yo ; da-ra, da-tul, dat, correspond mainly with the Fijian, and are all from the root da, ta. I think that I have thus pi'oved that our Australian base ta is not local, but sporadic, and that, so far as this evidence has any weight, the brown Polynesians have something in common with the Melanesian race. My next inquiry is this — Has this base, ta, da, ad, any connec- tion with the other race-languages 1 And at once I remember that the old Persian for ' I ' is ad-am, and this corresponds with the Sanskrit ah-am, of which the stem is agli-, as seen in the Grseco-Latin ego and the Germanic ich. I assume an earlier form of this base to have been ak-, but, whether this Indian ak- orthe Iranian ad- is the older, I cannot say. At all events, the change of ak into at and then into ad, and conversely, is a com- mon phonetic change, and is at this moment going on copiously in Polynesia. The ak is now in present use in the Malay aku, ' I.' *The possessive termination for persons in Awabakal is -umba; tliis I take to be for gu-mba, the gu being the possessive formative in Wiradhari ; it corresponds to the Ebudan ki, which is used in the same way. •\Cf. Singular, Dual, and (all else) Plural. xliv INTEODUCTIOir. Tho other Australian base-fomi of tlie first pronoun is ba, and this, in the forms of nia, me, mi, mo, is so common in all languages that I need scarcely quote more than Sanskrit mad (the base), 'I'; the Grjeco- Latin emou, mou ; mihi, me; and the English, ' we.' This base, ba, gives us the Awabakal simple nomi- native bag (for ba-ag), -ag being one of the most common of Australian formatives. Then, of the possessive form, emmo-iig, which I would write emo-ug, I take the e to be merely enuncia- tive, the -ug being a possessive formation ; the mo that remains is the same as in the Australian mo-to, wo-kok, ' I,' the Papuan, mOu, 'I.' The Awaliakal ba-li, 'we two '(both being present), is ba + li, where the -li is probably a dual form. The Awabakal accusative of the fii'st pronoun is tia, or, as I would write it, tya or ca ; cf. guca and unca. This tia appears again in tlie vocative ka-tio-u, and is, I think, only a phonetic form of the ta which I have already examined. I think, also, that the Hebrew pronoun an-oki, ' I,' is connected with our root ak, at, ta ; for it seems to be pretty well assured that the an- there is merely a demonstrative particle placed before the real root-form -ok-i ; for the Egyptian pronouns of the first and second persons have it (-an, -ant, -ent) also. And this quite corresponds with our Awabakal pronouns of the first and second })ersons, ga-toa and gin-toa; for, in my view, they both begin with a demonstrative ga, which exists also in Polynesian as a pro- thetic nga, nge.* In Awabakal, I see it in ga-li, 'this,' ga-Ia, ' that,' and in the interrogative gan, ' who ' % for interrogatives come from a demonstrative or indefinite base (cf. the word minyug on page 3 of the Appendix). Here again, in the Awa- bakal word gan, ' who ' ? we are brought into contact with Aryan equivalents ; for, if gan is for ka-an, as seems likely, then it leads us to the Sanskrit ka-s, ' who' % Zend, cvaht = Latin quan-tus % Latin, quod, ubi, itc, Gothic, livan = English, 'when''? Lithua- nian, ka-s, 'who'? Irish, can, 'whence"? Kymric, pa, 'who'? Greek, pds, ' how '? po-then, ' whence '? In the Australian plural forms geanni, geen, we have again the prefix demonstrative ga, but now softened into ge (r/!the Maori pre- fix nge) because of the short vowel that follows. The next syllable, an, is a liquid form of ad, ta, ' I,' and the ni may be apluralising addition — the same as in the Papuan ni-mo. It should here be remembered, howevei-, that the Australian languages seldom have special forms for tlie plural ; for ta may mean either ' I ' or 'we'; to indicate the plural number some pluralising word must be added to ta ; thus in Western Australia ' we' is gala-ta, literally 'all- I.' Some pronouns, however, seem to have absorbed these suffix *In Maori, this nge is used as a prefix to the pronouns au and ona» thus, nge-au is exactly equivalent to the Australian ngatoa. IKTBODUCTION, xlV- pluralising words, whatever they were, and thus to have acquired plui-al terminations ; of this our geanni is an instance ; in western Victoria, 'we' is expressed by ga-ta-en, that is, gata, ' I,' with the suffix -en — the same as the -ni of geanni. The Awabakal ' we ' is geen. Such plurals are very old, for they are found in the Babylonian syllabaries ; there the second pronoun is zu ; its plural is zu enan, that is, ' thou-they' = ye ; there also, ' I ' is mu ; with which compare ba, ma. The Second Pronoun. — There are only two base-forms for the second pronoun, bi o?' bu and gin. The latter is strengthened by the addition of -da, which may also be -de, -di, -do, -du, and these vocalic changes support my contention, that this syllable proceeds from the demonstrative ta, for if the original is da or ta, all the others may proceed from that, but it is not likely that, conversely, any one of them would change into -da. The -to a in the Awa- bakal gin-toa is the same as in gcit-toa, and the initial g is the same as ga, ge. But what is the body of the word — the -in ? I can only say with certainty that it is the base-form of the second pronoun, for I can give no further account of it. Possibly, it is for bin with the b (v) abraded ; for the other base-form, although it now appears as bi, may have been originally bin — the same as the accusative ; and yet, in the accusative dual, we have gali-n and bulu-n, and in the singular bon for bo-un, where the n seems to be a case-sign. If the -in of gintoa is for bin, then we get back to bi as the only base-form of the second Australian pronoun, and bi gives the forms wi-ye, we, i-mi-ba, win-in, q.v. The other base-form of bi is bu, and this is attested in Australian by b lib la, wuru, nuro, nuni, q.v. ; the n'yurag in South Australia shows how the initial ?i has come in, for that plural is equivalent to gvurag, from bu; it also shows the origin of the Awabakal plural nu-ra. The -ra there is certainly a plural form ; for we have it in ta-ra, 'those,' from the singular demonstrative ta, and in ba-ra, ' they,' from ba. In the genitive gear-unba, ' of us,' the -ar may be this -ra, but it may also be simply the -an of the nominative. This same -r a is a pluralising suffix in Melanesia. In many parts of Melanesia, likewise, this mu — often when used as a verbal suffix — is the pronoun ' thou.' I may here venture the conjecture, without adding any weight to it, that, as the Sanskrit dva, 'two,' gives the Latin bis, bi, so, on the same principle, the Sanskrit tva, ' thou,' may be the old form to which our bi, bu is allied. As to the prefix ga, I know that, in New Britain, ngo is 'this,' in Aneityum, nai, naico, i-naico is 'that.' This nga, also, as a prefix, occurs in a considerable number of words in Samoan; for instance, tasi is 'one,' and tusa is 'alike,' solo is 'swift'; an in- tensive meaning of each is expressed by ga-tasi, ga-tusa, ga-solo ; Xlvi INTEODUCTIOy. the numeral 'ten' is ga-fulu wliicli I take to mean 'the whole' (sc. fingers). In Teutonic, it seems to have sometimes a collective force, as in ge-birge, ' mountains,' and sometimes an intensive, as in Gothic, ga-bigs, from Sanskrit bliaga, the 'sun.' In Latin the suffix c in sic is supposed to be the remains of a demonstrative. Gratoa, then, is to me made up of ga + ad + do, the -do being the same suffix particle of emphasis which is elsewhei'e in Australia written -du, and the -do is extended into -to a, also for emphasis, as in tlie Wiradhari yama, yamoa, and other Australian words. It is quite possible that this -do also is only the demonstrative ta — so often used in composition in Awabakal — changed into -to, Ttlo, according to the rules on pages 10 and 11 of this volume. From the lists of pronouns given above, it will be seen that Fijian also prefixes a demonstrative ko, ko-i to its first and second pronouns. This same particle, ko, o is also prefixed to nouns, and especially to proper names. In Samoan, 'o, that is, ko, is placed before nouns and pronouns when they are used as the sub- ject of a proposition — this, also, for enq^hasis, to direct attention to the agent, like the agent-nominative case in Awabakal. In the Ebudan and Papuan pronouns, a similar prothetic demon- sti-ative is found ; there it has the forms of na, ain, en, a, ka, ha, ya, ye; in many of the Ebudan dialects, — the Aneityumese, for instance — the demonstrative in, ni, elsewhere na, is prefixed to almost every word that is used as a noun. In other parts of Melanesia, the na is a suffix. Finally, I placed the Dravidian pronouns in my list in order to compare them with the Australian. And the comparison is in- structive. They are, chiefly, nan, yan, for the first person, and nin, ni for the second. Dr. Caldwell himself considers the initial n in each case to be not radical, and the base forms to be iin and in. This is a close approximation to our Australian bases ; for we have the three forms, gud-du, nad-du, yad-du, in which the n and the y proceed from the original nasal -guttural g, and that g, as I have shown, is only a demonstrative prefix. The d of nad and yad may easily pass into its liquid n, thereby giving the Dravidian nan and yiin ; and the Australian forms are older, for Avhile d will give n, oi, when established in a word, will not i-evert to d. So also, the Dravidian nin will come from the earlier gin, which we find in the Australian ginda. IX. The Formatiox of Words. Any one who examines the Vocabularies of the Awabakal and the Wiratlhari dialects will see how readily the Australian language can form derivative words from simjjle roots, and how expressive those words may become, The language is specially i>7rEODUCTio:s'. slvii rich in verb-forms. As an illustration of this, let ns take from the "Wiradhari dialect the root verb banga, of which the original meaning is that of 'breaking,' 'dividing,' 'separating.' From that root are formed — bang-ana, 'to break' (intrans.), bang- lira, 'to bi'eak ' (trans.), banga-mara, 'to (make to) break,' and, with various other adaptations of the root-meaning, banga-bira, banga-dira, banga-nira, banga-naringa, banga-dara, banga- gainbira, banga-dambira, banga-durmanbira, bang-al-gara. It is true that these varying formativea resolve themselves into a few simple elements, but they certainly convey different shades of meaning ; else, why should they exist in the language 1 Nor is the root banga the only one on Avhich such changes are made; for the Wiradhari vocabulary contains numerous instances of similar formations. Then the modes of a verb are also usually abundant and precise. In the Indicative mood, the Awabakal dialect has oiine different tenses, and the Wiradhari has one more, the future perfect. Our Australian verb thus rivals and excels the Greek and the San- skrit, for it thus has four futures, and, for time past, it has three forms, marking the past time as instant, proximate, and remote. Corresponding to these tenses, there are nine participles, each of which may be used as a finite verb. Besides an Imperative mood and a Subjunctive mood, there are reflexive and reciprocal forms, forms of negation, forms to express continuance, iteration, immi- nence, and contemporary circumstances. Now, as the Australian language is agglutinative, not inflexional, the verb acquires all these modifications by adding on to its root-form various independ- ent particles, which, if we could trace them to their source, would be found to be nouns or verbs originally, and to contain the various shades of meaning expressed by these modes of the verb. The Fijian verb — in a Melanesian region — is also rich in forms ; for it has verbs intransitive, transitive, passive, and, with prefixes, intensive, causative, reciprocal, and reciprocal-causative. And among the mountains of the Dekkan of India — also a black region — the verb, as used by the Tudas and Gonds, is much richer than that of the Tamil, the most cultivated dialect of the same race. And, in A.ustralian, this copiousness of diction is not confined to the verbs ; it shows itself also in the building up of other words. On page 102 of this volume, a sample is given of the manner in which common nouns may be formed by the adding on of particles. Mr. Hale, whom I have already named, gives other instances, doubtless derived from his converse with Mr. Tlirelkeld at Lake Macquarie, and, although some of the words he quotes are used for ideas quite unknown to a blackfellow in his native state, yet they are a proof of the facility of expression which is inherent in the language. I quote Mr. Hale's examples : — xlviii INTEODUCTION, fe; >. _i « © ,__l , 1 '-0 •bC •bC 'o 'S t ■ta .^ .^ •to •£>C e tS f-H C3 cS i—H f— 1 « • 1— 1 >% a o • pH ^ S li 6 pq ij b C5 t>3 c3 ^ TjH S .rH ^ ^ -*-' ^ .JLi ^ r^ C3 C3 jS C5 ^^ ^J ^ ^Z^ § looo o5^. ^^^ P . "^ :^ -J: -J: S ^ -^-Ji -A ?. p. r. o -Ji o -^ -^ ^ 1 1^i:3g'^ 1^11^11 ii:^ "^ e S Oj k +J i^ s •2 -V E ■i i "u V) rt ^ o '~7 u u c 3 rt '^ 3 3 o ■» S pq o o O o w so o o © s: ^ 3 3 ® a p ci 3 s CO '^ cS -«2 • rH cS c3 ; — \ ;j:^ •~Y ^ g riS 3 a o '-3 c^ in _r^ r—l r " £^ b: k: ?> ., fD CD ff-i ri m ® 2 n ^ CO S! ' "^ --^ 5 cS ri^ .i, .^ c3 cS p oi ITJ S ',-=3 ^ 2 .„ „ . ^ -^ ;i ^ S :5 S (i "^ 'a o c^ d =^ i « g .5i .^^3 ^ ■—» c3 '-^ ;-> -J ^ u-i • ■— i • — * i/T* . ' — i__ h>. 1-^ ^ , '^ o o o C3 p; r^ 3 r^ cS ^ ci "^ ^ ;i^ t 1 rt c3 6 P P s^ &j o © © ►^ o t^ >> © (^ c^ © O t^ •^ S ^ >- g "V 'T-t r^ ^ ^ ri 3 o '3 15 3 o 5 ^ .^ t^ o ^ ? o r. c -r Si ^-r — '7 •'^ .A •'-< r^ ' '~r f" £^ S 5 ^ 5£-t-..2p=: -^HPPP^^^^ f.^ U pj C^i 'f "-Y '"7 rt e •-' ;j:^ r^i V ^ 3 -5 a o 1-^ S !3 d ci ci (-< rt ^ r^ 3 a .id ' ■ Jh ce ±3 • A •— 1 ; — 1 r^ -^. ^ 'C '^ '^ ""^ ~r 3 1-7 S "V 1 rt j — 1 p^ V ^ S 15 rt ^ 0 ci ^ ^ > >~^ 'S mocSooW^SSPPP^f^^H INTEODirCTIOX. xllx If ^ve follow tlie numbers on the columns, and rememloer that the w'ox'd in column iSTo. 1 always denotes the person who does the action of the verb, the meanings which these words bear — all springing from the verbal root-form and meaning — may be shown thus : — From Biin-ki-lli — 2. a boxer ; 3. a cudgel ; 4. a blow ; 5. the smiting ; 6. a pugilistic ring; root-ineanhig, 'smite.' Gakuya-Ui — 2. a liar ; 3. a ])retence ; 4. deceit ; 5. the 'deceiving ; 6. a gambling-house ; r^. »<..,' deceive.' Goloma-lli — 2. a saviour ; 3. a safeguard ; 4. protection ; 5. the protecting ; 6. a fortress ; rt.m., ' protect.' Gu-ki-lli — 2. an almoner ; 3. a shop ; 4. liberality ; 5. the giving of a thing; 6. a market ; rt.m., 'give.' Gura-lli — 2. a listener ; 3. an ear-trumpet ; 4. attention ; 5. the » act of hearing; 6. a news-room ; rt.m., 'hear.' Ko-ri-lli — 2. a porter ; 3. a yoke ; 4. a carriage ; 5. the carrying ; 6. a wharf ; rt.m., ' carry.' IMan-ki-lli — 2. a thief ; 3. a trap ; 4. a grasp ; 5. the taking ; 6. a bank ; rt. m. , ' take. ' Pirri-ki-lli — 2. a sluggard ; 3. a couch ; 4. rest ; 5. the reclining ; 6. a bedroom ; rt.m., 'recline.' Tiwa-lji • — 2. a searcher ; 3. a drag ; 4. search ; 5. the seeking ; 6. the woods ; rt.m., 'seek.' Uma-lli — 2. an artisan ; 3. a tool ; 4. work ; 5. the doing ; 6. a manufactory; rt.m., 'do.' Upa-Ui — 2. a writer ; 3. a pen ; 4. performance ; 5. the per- forming ; 6. a desk ; rt.m., ' perform.' TJwa-lli — 2. a wanderer ; 3. a coach ; 4. a journey ; 5. the walking ; 6. a parade ground; rt.m., 'walk.' Wiroba-lli — 2. a disciple ; 3. a portmanteau ; 4. pursuit ; 5. the act of following ; 6. the barracks ; rt.m., 'follow.' Wiya-lli — 2. a commander; 3. a book; 4. speech; 5. the speak- ing ; 6. a pulpit ; rt.m., 'speak.' Wiin-ki-lli — 2. a magistrate ; 3. a watch-house ; 4. resignation ; 5. the leaving; 6. the jail ; rt.m., 'leave.' Yallawalli — 2. an idler ; 3. a seat ; 4. a session ; 5. the act of sitting; 6. a pew ; rt.m., 'sit.' As to the oi'igin of these formatives, I think that kan equals k + an, the -an being a personal suffix from the same source as the demonstrative un-ni, 'this'; in Wiradhari it is -da in, that is d-hain, the -ain being the same as -an. We shall find further on that Jc, d, f, rj and other consonants are used in this language merely to tack on the suffix. Similarly, in Fijian and Samoan, 1 INTBODUCTION. there is a great variety of consonants in use for this purpose. The -kanne seems to be a softer form of -kannai or -kanmai, the -mai being a common formative. The -ta of number 5 is a de- monstrative whicli is used al)undantly in the language as a strengthening particle ; and the -to is the agent-nominative form (see pp. lO, 11) of -ta. The -geil of number 6, or, as I write it, -gel, seems to me to be of the same origin as the suffix -kill (see page 18) ; a corresponding word in Di'avidian is kal, 'a place.' The -ye of number 2 denotes a continued action, and may be the same as the impei-ative form -ia, that is -iya. In the list given above, 'a magistrate' is called wiinkiye be- cause he ' commits' the culpi'it to jail, and 'the watch-house' or jail is therefore wiinkilligel. The wirroballikan arc the 'light- horse,' who act as an escort to the Governor of the colony, and the place where they are housed is therefore wirroballigel. In the Gospel, the disciples of Christ are called wirroballikan, and their following of Him for instruction — their discipleship — is wirro- balli-kanne-ta. Biinkillikanne may be a 'musket,' because it ' strikes' with a ball, or it may be a ' hammer,' a ' mallet,' which gives 'blows.' The reader has observed that all the verbals in the first column above contain the syllable -illi, and, as that table has given us examples of synthesis, it may be j^rofitable now to examine the formation of Australian words by employing etymological analysis. With this view, I take up the Awabakal verb takilliko, 'to eat,' and I take this word, because the idea expressed by it is so essential to a language, that it is impossible that the word should be a loan-word. Now, the verb ' to eat ' has, in Australian, many forms, such as thalli, dalli, thaldinna, thilala, dira, chakol, taka, tala, and, in Tasmania, tuggara, tughli, te-ganna. Of all these, the simplest is taka, wjiich is used by the northern portion of the Kuriggai tribe (see map) in N. S. Wales. On com- paring taka and tala, it is evident that the simple root is ta, and all the others come from this; chakol, for instance, is ta palatalized intoca, with -kal added; di-ra has the sufhx -ra added on to the root ta, vocalized into di ; and dira gives the universal Australian word for the ' teeth,' just as the Sanskrit dant, 'a tooth ' {cf. Lat. dens), is a participial form of the verb ad, 'to eat.' The Tasmanian words, which I have here restored to something like a rational mode of spelling, are clearly the same as the Aus- tralian. Nor is the root ta contined to Australia ; it is spread all over the East as ta or ka. In Samoa (Polynesian), it is tau-te, <aM-mafa, and 'ai, that is (k)ai; in Aneityum (Melanesian), it is caig ; in Efate, kani ; in Duke of York Island, ani, wa-gan ; in Motu (New Guinea), ania ; in New Britain, an, van. The Dravi- dian is un, and the Sanskrit is ad and khad. Our English word IXTRODrCTIO'. U eat, Gothic ita, Latin edo, are from the same root. The Malay is ma-kan, of which the ma is also pa, ba, and with this corres- ponds the Melanesian (Efate) ba-mi, ' to eat.' Kow, it seems to me likely that in primitive speech there were, alongside of each other, three root-forms, ba, ad, and kad, of which ba and ad passed to the West and produced the Greek pha-go, and e(s)thio, the Latin edo, the English eat, while kad spread to the East and is the source of all the other words ; ba in a less degree accom- panied it, and gives bami (Efate), -ma-fa (Samoa), and the Malay ma-kan. This root ba seems also to exist in Australia, for one dialect has has a-balli, ' to eat.' In the Samoan tau-tc (a chief's word), the tau is an intensive and therefore, in this case, honorific, prefix, and the te is our root ta ; it thus corresponds with the Tasmanian te-ganna. In various parts of British Kew Guinea, words for ' eat ' ax'e bai, uai, mo-ana, kani-kani, an-an, ye-kai ; and for 'food,' kai, kan, ani-ani, ai-ai, mala-m, ala, wa-la. All these come from the roots ba and ka, kan; with an-an (an for kan) com- pare the Dra vidian un, 'to eat.' Thus I dispose of the Awabakal root ta, 'to eat '; and, if the analogies given above are well founded, then I am sure that our Australian blacks have a share with the rest of the world in a common heritage of language. When the radical syllable, ta, is removed, the i*emainder of our sample word is -killi-ko, and both of these are formative. On comparing ta-killi-ko with other Awabakal vex'bs, such as um- ulli-ko, wi-yelli-ko, nm-olli-ko, and with the Wiradhari verbs and verbals da-alli, d-illi-ga, b-illi-ga, it is obvious that the essential portion of the affix is -illi or -alii, the consonants before it being merely euphonic. In the Dravidian languages, similar consonants, v, y, m, oi, d, t, g, are inserted to prevent hiatus, and in Fiji and Samoa there is also a great variety of consonants used to introduce suffixes. Then, as to the -illi or -alii, I find exactly the same formative in Gond — an uncultured dialect of the Dravidian ; there the infinitive of a verb has -ale o?* -ile ; and in Tamil, the verbal noun in -al, with the dative sign -ku added, is used as an infinitive ; in Canarese the -al is an infinitive without the -ku. In all this we have a close parallel to the Awabakal infinitive in -alli-ko, -illi-ko, for some of our dialects have the dative in -ol, -al.* Our formative, when attached to a verb-root, makes it a verbal noun, as bun-killi, 'the act of smiting '; hence the appropriateness of the suffix -ku, 'to,' a post-position. The -ko in ta-killi-ko is equivalent to the English 'to' with verbs, except that it is used as a post-position in Awabakal, where it is the common dative sign. It also resembles, both in form and *8ee page 49 of Appendix. lii I51R0DUCTI0IC. use, the Latin supine in -turn. This Sanskrit -turn is the accusa- tive of the sufhx -tu to express agency, and may thus corres])ond with our AustraHan suffix -to, -du, "which is used in a similar manner. In the Diyeri dialect*, the infinitive ends in m i, which means 'to'; in Aneityumcse imi means 'to.' Now, in all the Dra vidian dialects, the sign of the dative case is ku, ki, ge; in Hindi it is ko, in Bengali ke ; other forms in India are khe, -ghai, -gai; with this -gai compare the MiiTV'ung dative in -gai*. In the Kota dialect of the Dravidian, the dative sign is ke, and the locative is -ol-ge; the infinitive ends in -alik, probably a compound of ali and ke ; the Aneityumeso infinitive in -aliek is very like that. A close parallel to our Awabakal infinitive in -k o is the Dravidian infinitive in -gu ; as, kuru, 'short,' kuru-gu, 'to diminish.' In the Malay languages, tran- sitive verbs are formed by prefixes and affixes ; of the latter, the most common is kan, which may be the preposition ka, 'to.' In the Ebudan languages, ki is a genitive and a dative sign, and in one of them, Malekulan, bi, ' to,' makes an infinitive (cf. the South Australian mi), and this same bi is used like the Latin ut, ' in order that '; with this compare the Awabakal koa (page 75, et al.) — a lengthened form of -ko. In Fijian, some transitive verbs take ki, 'to,' after them, but a common termination for the infini- tive is -ka, and the 'i (sometimes ' o) of many verbs in Samoan may be the same termination. Our infinitive denotes the ' end ' or ' purpose ' for which any- thing is done ; hence the dative sign ; so also in Sanskrit, it would be correct to use the dative in -ana of the verbal noun. In the "VViradhari dialect, -ana is a very common termination for in- finitives ; but I do not know that it has any relation to the Sanskrit -ana. I have taken this verb takilliko as an example of the form- ation of an infinitive in Awabakal ; all other infinitives in that dialect are formed in the same way; the variations -ulli-ko, olli-ko, elli-ko proceed from -alii, which I would write -alii, so as to include the vowel changes all in one sign. In other dialects, there are many other forms for the infinitive, but this one in -illi is not confined to the Kuriggai tribe, but is found also in Victoria. Another similar and very important "\'erb in the Awabakal is kakilliko, the vei'b 'to be.' On the same principles, as shown above, the -killiko here is terminational and the root is ka. Here again the Dravidian dialects assist us to trace the word ; for the Tamil has iVgu, 'to become,' the Telugu has kii, the Canarese agal, and the Gond a3^-a,le. Our Wiradhari dialect says ginya (for gi-ga), 'to become.' It is possible that these forms have a parallel, but independent, relation to the Sanskiit roots gan and ga, 'to come into being,' Greek gigno-mai, gino-mai. *See pp. 13 and 45 of Appendix. iNTRODUCTiox. liii X. G-EAMMATICAL FoEMS AND SxNTAX, The consideration of the grammatical forms and the syntax of a language, is a very important part of comparative grammar, and is a more potent proof of identity of origin than mere words can be ; for, while words may be abnndantly introduced from abroad, as the history of our English language testifies, yet the essential structure of allied languages is as little liable to change as the cranial character of a race, As none of the dialects spoken in Australia has had the chance of becoming fixed by being reduced to writing, the materials available for comparing them with themselves and with other languages are in a state of flux and decay, and any effort to determine their grammar will be only provisioDal at present, and subject to errors arising from the imperfect state of our information about them. Nevertheless, allowance being made for this source of imperfection and error, several of their features may be regarded as well- determined ; and it will here be convenient to arrange these in numbered paragraphs. 1. The Australian languages are in the agglutinative stage ; the relations which words and ideas bear to each other in a sentence are shown by independent words, often monosyllables, Avhich do not lose their identity when attached to the word which they thus qualify. Por example, 'he is the son of a good (native) man,' in Awabakal, is noa yinal mararag ko ba kuri ko ba, where the monosyllables ko and ba express the relation of yinal to kiiri, and are otherwise in common use as distinct words; they can be combined and fastened on to kiiri so that the whole may be pronounced as one word, kurikoba, but they do not thus become lost as case-endings. These particles ko-ba, when thus united, may be also treated as an independent word, even as a verb, for koba-toara is a verbal form, meaning 'a thing that is in possession, gotten, acquired.' Similarly, the tenses of the verb are indicated by particles added on to the stem; as, bum-mara-bun-bill-ai-koa bag, 'that I may permit the one to be struck by the other'; here bun is the root-form, 'strike,' which may be almost any part of speech; ma- ra is an independent stem meaning 'make' (ma); biin is another verb conveying the idea of ' permission ' ; it is not used as a separate word, but it appears to be only a derived form of the verb ba, (ma), ' to make,' 'to let'; the rest of our sample word is bill-ai-koa; of these, koa is a lengthened form of the preposition ko, ' to,' and is equivalent to the Latin conjunction ut; the -ai has a reciprocal force, andb-illi is the same forma- tive which we found in ta-killi-ko, q.v. Thus our sample-word is made up of three verbs, a formative (illi), which, perhaps, is of the nature of a demonstrative, a particle, and the infinitive post-position, which, as to its origin, may have been a verb. Hv INTEODrCTTOX. 2. Nevertheless, several dialects haA-e forms which show the p.gglutinative Avords on the way to become inflexional. la the dialect of Western Australia, ' the woman's staff is yago-ak wanna, in Avhich the -;ik has lost its independence, aud is as much a case-ending as the <«, i, or is of the Latin genitive. So also in Awabakal ; the -umba of kokara cmoumba, 'my house,' may be regarded as inflexional ; for, although the -ba can be de- tached and used as a separate word, not so the -um. I believe the -limba to be a weathering for gu-mba, the gu being a dialect form of the post-position ko, as in AViradhari ; yet the -XI cannot stand alone ; the m belongs to the ba. 3. As to the Cases of nouns and pronouns, they are shown by separable post-positions which are themselves nouns, adjectives, or verbs. The post-position birun g, for example, meaning 'away from,' is an adjective in the Wiradhari dialect, and means ' far distant,' while birandi, another form from the same root, is the post-position, 'from.' The other post-positions in the paradigm on page 1(5 are all taken from the monosyllables ka and ko. Of these, I take ko to be a root- verb, implying ' motion to,' and ka another, meaning ' to be ' in a certain state or place ; but of their origin I can give no account, unless ka be related to the Dravidian verb agu, already noticed, and ko be a modiflcdform of ka. These tAvo roots, variously combined, beeom.e the post- positions kai, kin-ko, ka-ko, kin-ba, ka-ba, ka-birung, kin- birung on page 16 ; by the influence of the final consonant of the words to Avhich they are joined, the initial k of those becomes t, I, or r. A similar account of the post-positions in the ISTarrinyeri, the Diyeri, and other distant dialects could, no doubt, be given, but from the scantiness of our knoAvledge, that is at present im- possible. 4. As to the Gender of nouns, that is either implied in the meaning of the Avord or to be guessed from the context. In Fijian, a word is added to mark the gender ; for example, gone is ' child,' and, from it, a gone tagane is ' a boy,' but a gone alewa is 'a girl.' The Samoans say ull po'a and ull fafine to mean a ' male dog ' and a ' female dog,' and the Ebudans something similar. Our Australians have no such devices, but they iiave some Avords in which the gender is clearly distinguished by an ending added on, or by a change of the voAvel sound of the final syllable of the word. The most commtm feminine sufiix is -gun; as, mobi, 'a blind man,' mobi-gun, 'a blind Avoman'; yinal, 'a son,' yinal-kun, 'a daughter'; another suflix is -in; as, AAvaba- kal, 'amanof AAvaba,' AAvaba-kal-in, 'a Avomanof Awaba '; ma- koro-bau, makoro-bin, 'a fisher-man,' 'a fisher-Avoman,' showa change in the vowel sound. I think that, in proportion to the extent of the language, instances of this kind — the expression of INTEODrCTlOIS". Iv gender by change of termination — are quite as common in Australian as they are in English. To this extent, therefore, the Australian dialects are sex-denoting. The -ban in makoro-ban seems to be a masculine suffix ; in the Minyung dialect, yerrubil is ' a song,' yerrubil-gin, 'a singer,' and yerrubil-gin-gun is a 'songstress.' The AViradhari -dain in birbal-dain, 'a baker,' from birbara, ' to bake,' and in many other words, is also a masculine termination. 5. As to Number of nouns and pronouns, the same word, and the same form of it, does duty both as singular and plural ; the context shows which is meant ; e.g., kuri is ' a (native) man,' but kuri is also 'men'; if the speaker wishes to eay, '« man came home,' that would be wakal kiiri, 'one man' — the numeral being used just in the same way as our Saxon ' an,' ' ane ' — but 'the men' would be bara kuri, ' they-man,' not kuri bara, as the Aryan arrangement of the words would be. Hence the pronoun ngaddu, ngadlu may mean either 'I' or ' we'; to mark the number some pluralising word must be added to nouns and pronouns, such as iu the gala-ta, 'we,' of Western Australia, where the gala is equivalent to 'they,' or perhaps 'all.' In Wiradhari, galang is added on to form plurals. Nevertheless, there are, among the pronouns, terminations which appear to be plural forms, as, nge-an-ni, 'we,' nu-ra, 'you,' which I have already considered iu the section on the Australian pronouns. The declension of y ago, ' a woman ' (page 49 of Appendix), is an example of a termination added on to form the plural uf a uoun, and shows how much akin our Australian language is to the Dravidian and other branches of the Turanian family. Yago takes -man as a plural ending, and to that affixes the signs of case which are used for the singular number. As a parallel, I cite the Turanian of Hungary; there, ur is ' master,' ur-am is 'my master,' ur-aim, 'my masters,' ur-am-nak, ' to my master,' ur-aim-nak, ' to my masters.' The Dravidian has not, in general, post-fixed possessives, but our Narrinyeri dialect has them, and they are quite common in the Papuan and Ebudan languages. In Fijian, the possessives, with nouns of relationship or members of the body or parts of a thing, are always post-fixed. And in Dravidian, when a noun denotes a rational being, the pronominal termination is suffixed. 6. The Minyung dialect (page 4, Appendix) makes a distinc- tion between life-nouns and uon-life nouns, and varies the end- ings of its adjectives accordingly. iSomething similar exists in Dravidian ; for it has special forms for epicene plurals and for rational plurals and for neuter plurals ; and, of course, in the classic languages the a of the neuter plural is distinctive. But in Eijian, the Minyung principle is carried out more fully, for possessives vary their radical form according as the nouns to Ivi I^"TEOD^CTION. which thoy are joined denote things to be held merely in possess- ion, or to be eaten, or to be drunk. In Samoan there is a some- vvhat similar use of lona and lana, ' his.' 7. In the Awabakal dialect (see the Gospel ]U(.<}si}n), a main feature is the use of the demonstrative ta us a suffix ; it is added to nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs, and always has the effect of strengthening the word to which it is joined ; as, unni xa Ivuri, 'this man,' wakal-la purreang, ' one day'; its jDlural is ta-ra; another form, apparently a plural, is tai, as in mararang-tai, ' the good'; the singular form tarai means 'some one,' 'another.' Ta is simply a demonstrative particle, and may be related to the Sanskrit tad, 'this,' 'that.' Ta is always a suffix, and I consider it the same word as the demon- strative -na, which is so common as a suffix to nouns in all Melanesia, and sometimes in Polynesia. Some Ebudan dialects use it as a prefix, na, ni, in. In Telugu, ni and na are attached to certain classes of nouns before adding the case signs, as da-ni-ki, ' to that.' This t a is probably the same as the Dra- vidian da of inda, 'this,' anda, 'that.' 8. In Awabakal, a noun or adjective, when used as the sub- ject cf a proposition, takes ko (to, lo) as a suffix; so also in Fijian and Samoan, k o, ' o as a prefix. In i\-wabakal, this ko must be attached to all the words that are leading parts of the subject; as, tarai-to bulun kinbirug-ko, ' som.e one from among them.' In Awabakal, there seems to be no definite arrangement of words in a simple sentence except that required by expression and emphasis ; but an adjective precedes its noun and a pro- noun in the possessive may either follow its noun or go before it. In Dravidian also, the adjective precedes its substantive ; but the possessive pronouns are prefixed to the nouns. These comparisons are general ; those that now follow com- pare the Australian with the Dravidian. 9. In Grond and Tamil, the instrumental case-ending is -al. "With this compare the IVarrinyeri ablative in -il, and the -al of "Western Australia (pj). 29, 32, 49 of Appendix). 10. The Tuda dialect alone in the Dekkan has the sound of y and the hard ih of the English 'thin'; in Australia the Narrinyeri has the th of ' thin,' but there is no/" anywhere. 11. The Tamil inserts a euphonic m before b ; this is also exceedingly common in Australia. The Canarese dialect hardens muru, ' three,' into miindru. Some of the dialects of Australia have a similar practice, and the Eijians do the same. 12. In Tamil, the conjunctive-ablative case has odu, dialect toda, ' together with,' su2)posed to come from the verb to-dar, 'to join on.' The corresponding Awabakal word is katoa for kata (page IG). iNTEODrcTro:^". Ivii 13. In Dravidian, the 2nd singular of the Imperative is the crude form of the verb ; so also in Australian. 14. In Tamil, the accusative case is the same as the nomina- tive ; so also with common nouns in Australian. 15. In Dravidian, there is no case ending for the vocative ; some sign of emphasis is used to call attention ; in Tamil, this is e. In Awahakal, el a is used for the same purpose, and in Wira- dhari ya. In Samoan e is used, but it usually comes after its noun. 16. In Dravidian, there are compound case-signs. So also in Australian (see pages 1(5, 17, and of Appendix, pages 80, 33, 58). 17. In Dravidian, comparison is expressed by using some ad- verb v\dth the adjective ; as, ' this indeed is good,' for ' this is very good.' There are no adjective terminations there to show comparison, but some Australian dialects seem to have them (see pages 45 and 51 of Appendix). Usually the Australian and the Melanesian languages are like the Dravidian in this matter. 18. In Turanian, the ma of the first pronoun often adds an obscure nasal making it something like mang. "With this com- pare the Awabakal bang. 19. Eor the second pronoun, the Tamil has ay, 6y, er. "With these compare the Papuan second pronoun on page xl. of this Introduction. 20. In the Dravidian pronoun niu, 'thou,' the initial ii is merely a nasalisation, for it disappears in the verbal forms. AVith this compare my analysis of the Awabakal pronoun gintoa. 21. In Dravidian generally, the pluralising particles are added on to the pronouns ; but in Telugu these signs are prefixed, as in mi-ru. "With this compare the Papuan ni-mo (page xl. of this Introduction), and the Awabakal ba-ra, nu-ra, and the like. 22. In almost all the Dravidian dialects, the first pronoun plural has both an inclusive and an exclusive form. This is so also in the Melaiiesian languages, especially those of the iS'ew Hebrides and Fiji. 23. The Canarese formative of adverbs is ?,asin illi, alii, elli, 'here,' 'there,' 'where'; in Gond, ale, ile are the verb-endings. In Awabakal, these are the f ormatives of verbal nouns, as I have shown in another section. Now, it is an easy thing in language for a noun to be used adverbially, and hence the Canarese and Grond formatives may really be nouns. This would bring them, closer to the Awabakal. 24. In the chief Dravidian dialects, the infinitive ends in -ku, a post-preposition, ' to.' tSo also in Awabakal, as has been already shown. I may add here that the Zulu infinitive ends -ku. 25. The Dravidian verb may be compounded with a noun, but never with a preposition. So also the Australian vei'b. Iviii INTHOBTJCTIOIf. 2G. The Dravidiau verb is agglutinative ; particles are added on to the stem in order to express mood, tense, causation, negation, &c., no change being made on the stem. Tiilu and Gond — botli uncultured dialects — are exceptionally rich in moods and teuses. All this applies to the Australian, the Ebudan, and the Fijian verbs. 27. In Dravidian, there are no relative pronouns. So in Australian ; for ' this is the book which you gave me,' a native would say ' this is the book ; you gave it me.' 28. In Canarese, kodu, 'to give,' is used as a permissive. In Awabakal, biin is the permissive, and appears to be formed from ba, a root-form meaning 'to make.' In English, the conditional conjunction 'if is for ' gif,' 'give.' 29. The Dravidian verb has no passive, nor has the Australian. For ' it was broken,' our natives would say ' broken by me (you, ttc.) '; a Dravida would say, 'it became broken through me.' 30. In Dravidian there are two futures — (I) a conditional future, and (2) a sort of indeterminate aorist future. For the latter, the Malayalam adds -um to the verbal noun which is the base of the future. In Awabakal there are three futures ; the third is an aorist future and adds -nun to the verbal stem in -illi (see pages 25, 28 adjinem). Tliis -nun is probably equi- valent to a formative -un with n interposed between the vowels to prevent hiatus. In Tamil also n (for d') is similarly inserted in verbs; as, padi(«)an, 'I sang.' XL TuE Origin of the Austealiak Eace. From these analogies and from the general scope of my argu- ment in this Introduction, the reader perceives that I wish to prove a kinship between the Dravidian race and the Australian. This opinion I expressed in print more than ten years ago Avhen it was not so generally held as it is now. Some of the very highest authorities have formed the same opinion from evi- dence other than that of language. But a theory and arguments thereon must be shown to be antecedently possible or even pro- bable before it can be accepted ; and to furnish such a basis of acceptance, one must go to the domain of history. This I now do. In my opinion the ultimate home of origin of the negroid population of Australia is Babylonia. There, as history tells us, mankind first began to congregate in great numbers, and among them the Hamites, the progenitors of the negro races. It seems to have been those Hamites who were the first to tiy to break down the love-law of universal brothei'hood and equality; for Nimrod was of their race, and wished to establish dominion over his fellows, and to raise an everlasting memorial of his power, like those which his kindred afterwards reared in Egypt. This attempt was frustrated by the ' Confusion of tongues,' at INTRODUCTIOK. lix Baliel ; and here begins, as I tliink, the first movement of the negro race towards India and consequently towards Australia. Here comes in also the ' Toldoth Bene Noah' o£ Grenosis x. Accordingly, the position of the Hamitc or black races at the opening of history is, in Greaesis x. G, indicated ethnically by the names Kush and Mizraim and Phut and Canaan, which geogra- phically are the countries we call Ethiopia and Egypt and Nubia and Palestine. The Kushites, however, were not confined to Africa, but were spread in force along the whole northern shores of the Arabian sea ; they were specially numerous on the lower courses of the Euphrates and Tigris, their original seats, and there formed the first germ whence came the great empire of Babylonia. The Akkadians were Turanian in speech, and, it may be, black in ' colour.' In this sense, the later Greek tradition (Odyssey 1-23-24) speaks of both an eastern and a western nation of Ethiopians. And Herodotus tells us (VII-70) that in the army of Xerxes, when he invaded Greece, " the Ethiopians from the sun-rise (for two kinds served in the expedition) were mar- shalled with the Indians, and did not at all differ from the others in appearance, but only in their language and their hair. Eor the eastern Ethopians are straight-haired, but those of Libya have hair more curly than that of any other people." It is clear, therefore, that the black races, many centuries before the Trojan war, had spread themselves from the banks of the Indus on the east right across to the shores of the Mediter- ranean, while towards the south-west they occupied the whole of Egypt and the Abyssinian highlands. Thus they held two noble coigns of vantage, likely to give them a commanding influence in the making of the history of mankind — the valley cf the Nile, which, through all these ages to the present hour, has never lost its importance — and the luxuriant flat lands of Mesopotamia. A mighty destiny seemed to await them, and already it had begun to show itself; for the Kushites not only made the earliest advances towards civilisation, but under Nimrod, ' that mighty hunter,' smitten with the love of dominion, they threatened at one time to establish a universal empire with Babel as its chief seat. And not without reason ; for the Kushite tribes were stalwart in stature and physique, in disposition vigorous and en- ergetic, eager for war and conquest, and with a capacity and lust for great things both in peace and war. But a time of disaster came wdiich carried them into the remotest parts of the earth — into Central Africa, into the mountains of Southern India, Avhence, after a while, another impulse sent them onwards to- wards our own island-continent ; hither they came, as I think, many centuries before the Chris^tian era, pressed on and on from their original seats by the waves of tribal migration which were so commou in those early days. Similar was the experience of Ix INTEODTJCTIOy. the Kelts, a very ancient tribe ; soon after their first arrival in Enrope. we find tliem occupying Thrace and tlie countries about the moutli of the Danube ; but fresh immigration from the Cau- casus plateau pushed them up tlie Danube, then into Belgium and France, thence into Britain, and last of all the invading Faxons drove them westwards into Ireland, and into the moun- tains of Wales and Scotland. So the successive steps of the Ivushite displacement, in my opinion, were these : — first into the valley of the Granges, where they were tlie original inhabitants, then into the Dekkan and into Further India, then into Ceylon, the Andaman Islands, and the Sunda Islands, and thence into Australia. These stages I will examine presently more in detail. But, meanwhile, let us look at the old Babylonian kingdom. Its ethnic basis was Kusliite ; its ruling dynasty continued to be Ivushite probably down to the time of the birth of Abraham, about 20U0 B.C. But before that date, the Babylonian population had been materially changed. Nimrod had conquered Erech and Accad and Calneh in the land of Shinar ; an /Vkkadian or Turanian element was thus incorporated with his empire ; he had built jSTineveh and liehoboth and Calah and Kesen (Genesis x. 11) ; a Shemite element was thus or in some other way superadded ; other Turanians and Shemites and Japhetian Aryans too, perhaps at- tracted by the easy luxuriance of life on these fertile jjlains, had all assembled in Chalda3a and Babylonia. In consequence, we find that, about twenty centuries B.C., the Ivushite kingdom had become a mixed conglomerate of four essentially different races — Ilamite, Turanian, Shemite, and Japhetian — v/hich on the in- scriptions are called Kiprat-arlat, 'the four quarters.' Then, as the Babylonian worship of Mulitta demanded free intercourse as a religious duty, a strange mixture of pliysical types must have been developed among the children of these races, the Ethiopian, Scythic, Shemitic, and Iranian all blending — a rare study to the eye of a physiologist, who would have seen sometimes the one type sometimes the other predominating in the child. This Chalda*an monarchy — the first of the five great monarchies of ancient history — was overthrown by an irruption of Arab (Shemitic) tribes about the year 1500 B.C. And now, as I think, another wave of population began to move towards our shores ; for t^iese Arabs were pure mouotheists, and in their religious zeal must have dashed to pieces the polytheistic and sensual fabric which the Babylonian conquests had extended from the confines of India westwards to the Mediterranean {cf. Chedorlaomer's expedi- tion, Genesis xiv. 9). Those portions of the Chalda-o-Babylouian people that were unable to escape from the dominion of the Arabs were absorbed in the new empire, just as many of the Keltic Britons were in the sixth and seventh centuries merged in the newly-formed Saxon kingdoms. But the rupture of the Babylo- iXTnoDUCTio:;?". Isi Bian State and the proscription of its wor.sliip must have been so complete as to drive forth Irom their native seats thousands of the people of the four tongues and force them westwards into Africa, or eastwards through the mountain passes into the table- land of Panjab, and thence into the Gangetic Plain. Here, I imagine, were already located the pure Hamites of the Dispersion ; but finding these to be guilty of a skin not exactly coloured like their own, and not understanding their language, these latter Kushites of mixed extraction regarded them as enemies and drove them before them into the mountains of the Dekkan, where, to this hour, the Dravidians and Ivolarians are black-skinned and savage races. Ere long, these Babylonian Kushites were themselves dis- placed and ejected from the Granges valley by a fair- skinned race, the Aryans, another and the last ethnic stream of invaders from the north-west. These Aryans, in religion and habits irrecon- cilably opposed to the earlier races of India, waged on them a relentless war. Hemmed up in the triangle of southern India, the earlier Hamites could escape only by sea ; the Babylonian Kushites, on the other hand, could not seek safety in the moun- tains of the Dekkan, as these were already occupied ; they must therefore have been pushed down the Ganges into Further India and the Malayan peninsula; thence they passed at a later time into Borneo, and the Sunda Islands, and Papua, and afterwards across the sea of Timor into Australia, or eastwards into Mela- nesia, driven onwards now by the Turanian tribes, which had come down from Central Asia into China and the Peninsula and islands of the East Indies. Many arguments could be advanced in favour of this view of the origin of the Australian race, but the discussion would be a lengthy one, and this is scarcely the place for it. I may, how- ever, be permitted to add here a simple incident in my own experience. A few months ago, I was staying for a while with a friend in the bush, far from the main roads of the colony and from towns and villages. One day, when out of doors and alone, I saw a black man approaching ; his curly hair, his features, his colour, and his general physique, all said that he Avas an Austra- lian, but bis gait did not correspond. I Avas on the point of addressing him as he drew near, but he anticipated me and spoke first; the tones of his voice showed me that I Avas mistaken. I at once suspected him to be a Kalinga from the Presidency of Madras. And he was a Kalinga. This incident tells its own tale. In short, it appears to me that the Dravidians and some tribes among the Himalayas are the representatives of the ancient Dasyus, Avho resisted the Aryan inA^asion of India, and Avhom the Puranas describe as akin to beasts. The existence, also, of Cyclopean remains in Ponape of the Caroline Islands, and else- where onward through the Pacific Ocean, even as far as Easter Ixii INTEODUCTION. Island in the extreme east — all these aclvnowledged by Polyne- sians to be the work of a previous race, which tradition, in various parts, declares to have been black — points out one of the routes by which the black race spread itself abroad into the eastern isles ; while the presence of Negrillo tribes in detached portions nearer to India — like islands left uncovered by the floods of stronger races pouring in — the Miiicopies in the Andaman Islands, the Samangs in the Malay Peninsula, and the Aetas in the interior of Borneo, with the wild remnants of a black race in the heart of many of the larger islands of the Malay Archi- pelago— all this seems to me to show that the primitive Dasyus, driven from India, passed into Purther India'and thence — being still impelled by race movements — into our own continent and. into the islands to the north and east of it. But this question must be left for separate investigation. Thus, in my view, our island first received its native population, in two different streams, the one from the north, and the other from the north-west. Many known facts favour this view : — (1.) Ethnologists recognise two pre- Aryan races in India. The earlier had not attained to the use of metals and used only polished flint axes and implements of stone ; the later had no written records, and made grave mounds over their dead. The Vedas call them ' noseless,' ' gross feeders on flesh,' ' raw eaters,' ' not sacrificing,' ' without gods,' ' without rites ' ; they adorned the bodies of the dead with gifts and raiment and ornaments. All this suits our aboriginals ; they are noseless, for they have very flat and depressed noses, as contrasted with the straight and prominent noses of the Vedic Aryans ; they have no gods and no religious rites such as the Vedas demand. (2.) The Kolarian and Dravidian languages have inclusive and exclusive forms for the plural of the first person. So also have many of the languages of Melanesia and Polynesia. (3.) The native boomerang of Australia is used on the south- east of India, and can be traced to Egypt — both of them Hamite regions. (4.) In the Ivamalarai dialect, the four class-names form their feminines in -tlia ; as, Kubbi (viasc), Kubbi-tha (fern.) ; and that is a Shemitic formative. ISo also in the Hamitic Babylo- nian, Mul (masc.) gives Muli-tta (fern.), and Enu (masc), Enu-ta {fern?). Although this formative is not common in the Austra- lian languages, yet its unmistakable presence in Ivamalarai may mean that our native population has in it the same mixed elements as existed in the old Babylonian empire. To the same eftect is the fact that some tribes practise circumcision, while contiguous tribes do not ; in many places the natives, in considerable num- bers, have distinctly fShemite features ; some have as regular Caucasian features as any of us ; others, again, arc purely negroid. iirTEODiiCTio>'. Ixiii (5.) In Chalda?a, the dead were not interred ; they were laid on mats in a brick vanlt or on a platform o£ sun-dried bricks, and over this a huge earthenware dish-cover, or in a long earthen jar in two pieces fitting into each other. Our blackfellows also, even when they do inter, are careful not to let the body touch the earth ; in some places, they erect stages for the dead — the Parsee "towers of vsilence"; elsewhere, they place the dead body in a hollow tree ; in South Australia, the corpse is desiccated by fire and smoke, then carried about for a while, and finally exposed on a stage. /Vll this corresponds with the Persian religious belief in the sacredness of the earth, which must not be contaminated by so foul a thing as a putrifying human body. And it shows also how diverse are our tribal customs in important matters. (6.) The Dravidian tribes, though homoo;eneous, have twelve varying dialects. The Australian dialects are a parallel to that. (7.) There is nothing improbable in the supposition that the first inhabitants of Australia came from the north-west, that is, from Hindostan or from Further India. Por the native tradi- tions of the Polynesians all point to the west or north-west as the quarter from which their ancestors first came. So also the Indias are to the north-west of our island. (8.) I now quote Dr. Caldwell; in diverse places, he says: — " The Puranas speak of the Nishadas as ' beings of the com- plexion of a charred stick, "svith flattened featui-es, and of dwarfish tature'; 'as black as a crow'; 'having pi'ojecting chin, broad ands flat nose, red eyes, and tawny hair, wide mouth, large ears, and a protuberant belly.' These Nishadas are the Kolarian tribes, such as the Kols and the Santals. But the Dravidians of the South have always been called Kalingas and Pandyas, not Nishadas." " The Tudasof the Dekkan are a tine, manly, athletic race, witli European features, Roman noses, hazel eyes, and great physical strength ; they have wavy or curly hair, while the people of the plains are straight haired, have black eyes, and aquiline noses. The skin of the Tudas, although they are mountaineers, is darker than that of the natives of the Malabar coast. The physical type of the Gondsis Mongolian, that of the other Dravidians is Aryan." " In Shamanism, there is no regular priesthood. The father of the family is the priest and magician ; but the office can be taken by any one who pleases, and laid aside ; so also in Southern India. The Shamanites acknowledge a Supreme God, but offer him no worship, for he is too good to do them harm. So also the Dravidian demonolators. Neither the Shamanites nor the Dra- vidians believe in metempsychosis. The Shamanites worship only cruel demons, with bloody sacrifices and wild dances. The Tudas exclude women from worship, even from the temples ; they perform their rites in the deep gloom of groves. They have a supreme god, Usitru Swdmi ; his manifestation is ' light,' not Ixiv IXTUODUCTIOX. * fire.' They have no circumcision. They have no forms of prayer. They believe in witchcraft and the work of demons. After the death of the body, the soul still likes and requires food." " Dr. Logan thought that the Dra vidians have a strong ]Melane- sian or Indo-Afric element, and says that a negro race overspread India before both the Scythians and the Aryans. De Quatrefages agrees with him, and says that, long before the historical period, India was inhabited by a black race resembling the Australians, and also, before history began, a yellow race came from the north- east. Of the Tamilians Dr. Logan says : — ' Some are exceedingly Iranian, more are Semitico-Iranian ; some are Semitic, others Australian ; some remind us of Egyptians, while others again have Malayo-Polynesian and even Semang and Papuan features.' Professor Max Miiller found in the Gonds and other non- Aryan Dravidians traces of a race closely resembling the negro. Sir George Campbell thinks that the race in occupation of India before the Aryans was Negrito. Even in the seventh centuiy of our era, a Brahman grammarian calls the Tamil and Telugu people Mlechchas, that is, aboriginals. Dr. Muir thinks that the Aryan wave of conquest must have been broken on the Yindhya mountains, the northern barrier of the Dekkan." COXCLUSIOX. In this discussion, I have endeavoured to show the origin of our Australian numerals, the composition and derivation of the chief personal pi'onouns, and of a number of typical w^ords for common tilings, and of these many more could be cited and ex- amined in the same way. I have shown, so far as I can, that these pronouns, and numerals, and test-words, and, incidentally, one of the postpositions, are connected with root-words, w^hicli must be as old as the origin of the language ; for such ideas as 'before,' 'begin,' 'first,' 'another,' 'follow,' 'change,' 'many,' seem to be essential to the existence of any language. I think I may safely say the same thing about the root-words for ' water,' ' dumb,' and ' eye.' It thus appears, from the present investigation, that our Australians have a common heritage, along with the rest of the world, in these root-words; for, if these blacks are a separate creation and so have no kindred elsewhere, or were never in con- tact with the other races of mankind, I cannot conceive how they have come to possess primitive words so like those in use over a very wide area of the globe. I therefore argue that they are an integral portion of the human race. If so, what is their origin % On this point, our present discussion may have thrown some light. J.F. PAET I. THE GRAMMAR AND THE KEY. J 2a 09—90 A (A.) THE GRAMMAE. [THE ORIGINAL TITLE-PAGE.^ AN AUSTRALIAIN^ GRAMMAE, COMPREHENDING THE PPtlNCIPLES AND NATURAL RULES OF THE AS SPOKEN BY THE ABORIGINES, IN THE VICINITY OF HUNTER'S EIYEE, LAKE MACQUAEIE, &c. NEW SOUTH WALES. BY L. E. THRELKELD. SYDNEY FEINTED BY STEPHENS AND STOKES, " HEEALD OFFICE,' • LOWES GEOEGE-STEEET. K^V'^^-^-^^s. 1834. &Lrm^i^4 THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE. In tlie year 1S2G, the writer printed a few copies entitled "Specimens of a dialect of the Aborigines of New South Wales," in which the English sounds of the vowels were adopted. Sub- sequently it was found that many inconveniences arose in the orthography, which could only be overcome by adopting anotner system. Many plans were proposed and attempted, but none appeared so well adapted to meet the numerous difficulties which arose, as the one in use for many years in the Islands of the South Seas,* wherein the elementary sounds of the vowels do not accord with the English pronunciation. This, however, does not meet all the difficulties, because there is a material difference in the idioms of the languages. For instance, in the Tahitian dialect.; the vowels always retain their elementary sound, because a con- sonant never ends a syllable or word ; in the Australian language, a consonant often ends a syllable or a word, and therefore its coalition with the sound of the vowels affects that sound and consequently shortens it; while, in many instances, the elementary sound of the vowel is retained wlien closed hy a consonant, as well as when the syllable or word is ended by the vowel. To meet this, an accent will be placed over the vowel when the elementary sound is retained, but without such accent the sound is to be shortened. For example, the Australian words hun, hiin^ tin, tin, will be sounded as the English hun, hoon, tin, teen. A set of characters cast expressly for the various sounds of the vowels would be the most complete in forming speech into a written language, but in the present instance that could not be accomplished. The present orthography is therefore adopted, not because it is considered perfect, but from the following reasons, viz. : — 1. It appears, upon consideration, impossible so to express the sounds of any language to the eye, as to enable a stranger to pronounce it without oral instruction. The principal object, therefore, is to aim at simplicity, so far as may be consistent with clearness. 2. There appears to be a certain propriety in adopting uni- versally, if possible, the same character to express the same sounds used in countries which are adjacent, as Polynesia and Australia, even though the languages be not akin ; especially when those characters have been adopted upon mature consideration, and confirmed by actual experience in the Islands of the South Seas. ■■■' Mr. Threlkeld was, for a time, a missionary at Raiatea, in the Society Islands. — En. VI TnE author's peeface. TTaving resided for many years in the island of TJaiatea, and liavin^ been in the constant liabit of conversing with and preach- ing to the natives in their own tongue, T am enabled to trace the similarity of languages used in the South 8eas. one vrith another, proving they are but different dialects, although the natives them- selves, and we also, at the first interview, could not understand the people of neighbouring islands, who speak radically the same tongue ! In the Australian tongues there appears to exist a very great similarity of idiom, as respects the dual number and the use of the form expressive of negation ; and yet it is observed by a writer in the article on ' Grreek language,' Rees's Cyclopaalia, that, " The dual number is hy no means necessanj in langnage, though it may enable the Greek to express the number ' two ' or 'pair' with more emphasis and precision." But this assertion is not at all borne out by facts ; because, in this part of the hemisphere, all the languages of the South Seas, in common with New South Wales, possess a dual number, and so essential is it to the languages that conversation could not be carried on, if they had it not. There is, however, a peculiarity in the dual of the Australian tongue which does not exist in the islands, namely, a conjoined case in the dual pronouns, by which the nominative and accusative are blended, as shown in the pronouns*, whilst the verb sustains no change, excepting when reflexive, or Reciprocal, or continuative. But in the Islands there are dual verbs. The modes of interrogation and replication are very much alike in the idiom of both languages, and so peculiar as hardly possible to be illustrated in the English language; for they scarcely ever give a direct answer, but in sucii a manner as leaves much to be implied. The aborigines of this colony are far more definite in the use of the tenses than the Islanders, who have nothing peculiar in the use of the tenses. The subject of tenses caused me much perplexity and diligent examination. ISTor did the observations of eminent writers on the theory of language tend to elucidate the matter; because the facts existing in the language of the aborigines of New Holland are in direct contradiction to a note to the article ' Grammar ' in the Mncjiclopcedla JBritannica-\, where certain tenses are represented as " peculiar to the Greek, and have nothing corresponding io them in other ionques, we need not scruple to overlook them as sKprrJluous.'" Now, our aborigines use the tenses of the verb and the ])articiple variously, to denote time past in general; or time past in particular, as, ' this morning only;' or time past remote, that is, at some former period, as, ' when I was in England,' or, ' when I was a boy,' The future time of the verb and of the participle is also modified in a similar manner, specifically, either now, or to-morrow * See page 17. — Ed. t Of that day. — Ed. THE AUTHOE S PREFACE. VU morning, or generally as in futnrity ; and besides this, there is another curious fact opposed to the conclusion of the writer's note, which reads thus : " Of the paulo-post-futurum of the G-reeks, we have taken uo notice, because it is found only in the passive voice ; to which if it were necessary, it is obvious that ifc would be necessary in all voices, as a man may he ahovf to act, as well as to suffer, immediately/.'''' Now, such is the very idiom of this language, as will be seen in the conjugation of the participle; for the pronoun, being used either objectively or noniinatively, will place the phrase either in the one sense or the other, such change in the pronoun constituting the equivalent to the passive voice or the active voice. The most particular attention is necessary to the tense of the participle as well as that of the verb, each tense being confined to its own particular period, as shown in the conjugation of the verbs. The various dialects of the blacks may yet prove, as is already ascertained in the Islands, to be a difficulty more apparent than real ; but wheji one dialect becomes known, it will assist materially in obtaining a speedier knowledge of any other that may be attempted, than if no such assistanco had been rendered. Although tribes within TOO miles do not, at the first interview, understand each other, yet I have observed that after a very short space of time they are able to converse freely, which could not be the case were the language, as many suppose it to be, radically distinct. The number of different names for one sub- stantive may occasion this idea. Por instance, ' water ' has at least five names, and ' fire ' has more ; the ' moon' has four names, according to her phases, and the kangaroo has distinct names for either sex, or according to size, or different places of haunt \ so that two persons would seldom obtain the same name for a kangaroo, if met wild in the woods, unless every circumstantial was precisely alike to both inquirers.* The quality of a thing is another source from which a name is given, as well as its habit or manner of operation. Thus, one man would call a musket ' a thing that strikes fire ;' a,nother would describe it as ' a thing that strikes,' because it hits an object ; whilst a third would name it ' a thing that makes a loud noise ;' and a fourth would designate it 'a piercer,' if the bayonet was fixed. Hence arises the difficulty to persons unacquainted with the language in obtaining the correct name of that which is desired. For instance, a visitor one day requested the name of a native cat from M'Gill, my aboriginal, who replied minnaring; the person was about to write down the word minnaring, 'a native cat,' when I prevented the naturalist, observing that the w^ord was not the name of the native cat, but a question, namely, * There are other reasons for this diversity of language. — Ed. Vlll THE AUTHOR S PREFACE. ' AVhat' (is it you say? being understood), the blackman not under- standing what was asked. Thus arise mau}^ of tlie mistakes in vocabularies published by transient visitors from foreign parts.* In a "Description of the Natives of King George's Sound (Swan River Colony)," which was written by Mr. Scott Nind, communi- cated by R. Brown, Esq., P.R.S., and read before the Eoyal Greographical Society, &c., 14th February, 1831, there is an interesting account of the natives, and also a vocabulary, not one word of which appears to be used or understood by the natives in this district ; and yet, from a passage at pa<j:e 2i, the following circumstance leads to the supposition that the language is formed on the same principles, and is perhaps radically the same tongue ; the writer observes : " It once occurred to me to be out shooting, accompanied by Mawcurrie, the native spoken of, and five or six of his tribe, when we heard the cry, coowhie, c o 0 w h i e c a c a, upon which my companion stopped short, and said that strange blackmen were coming." Now in this part of the colony, under the same circumstances, a party of blacks would halloo, k a ai, kaai, kai, kai; which, allowing for the difference in orthography, would convey nearly, if not precisely, the same sound ; the meaning is ' halloo, halloo, approach, approach.' Also, at page 20, the same word, used by the natives here in hunting and dancing, is mentioned as spoken by those aborigines in the same sort of sports, viz., wow, which in this work is spelt w u a ; it means ' move.' Also, at page 28, the phrase 'absent, at a distance' is rendered bocun, and 'let us go away ' by b 6 c u n o o 1 a , or w a t o o 1 a ; here the natives would say waita wolla; see the locomotive verb, in the conjugation of which a similarity of use will be perceived. At Wellington Valley, the names of the things are the same in many instances with those of this part, although 300 miles distant ; and, in a small vocabulary with which I wa? favoured, the very barbarisms are maz'ked as such, whilst mistaken names are written, the natural result of partial knowledge; for instance, kiwung is put down as the ' moon,' whereas it means the ' new moon,' yellenna being the 'moon.' In the higher districts of Hunter's River, my son was lately conversing with a tribe, but only one man could reply ; and he, it appears, had a few years back been in this part, and thus acquii'ed the dialect. Time and intercourse will hereafter ascertain the facts of the case. '" Many mistakes of this kind have been made by collectors of vocabu- laries ; even the word ' kangaroo,' which has now established itself in Australasia, does not seem to be native ; it is not found in any of the early lists of words. The settlers in Western Australia, when they first came into contact with the blacks there, tried to conciliate them by otFering them l)read, saying it was 'very good.' So, for a long time there, • very good ' was the blackmail's name for bread ! — Ed. THE ArTHOR S PREFACE. IX The arrangement of the grammar now adopted is formed on the natural principles of the language, and not constrained to accord with any known grammar of the dead or living languages, the peculiarities of its structui-e being such as totally to prevent the adoption of any one of these as a model. There is much of the Hebrew form in the conjugation ; it has also the dual of the Grreek and the deponent of the Latin. However, these terms are not introduced, excepting tlie dual, the various modifications of the verb and participle exemplifying the sense in which they are used. The peculiarity of the reciprocal dual may be illustrated by reference to a custom of the aborigines ; when a companv meet to dance, each lady and gentleman sit down opposite to one another, and reciprocally paint each other's cheek with a red pigment ; or, if there is not a sufficiency of females, the males perform the reciprocal operation. Also, in duelling, a practice they have in common with other barbarous nations, the challenge is expressed in the reciprocal form. The terms I have adopted to characterise the various modifications of the verb may not ultimately prove the best adapted to convey the various ideas contained in the respective forms, but at present it is presumed they are sufficiently explicit. Many are the difficulties which have been encountered, arising, principally, from the want of association with the blacks, whose wandering habits, in search of game, prevent the advantages enjoyed in the Islands of being surrounded by the natives in daily conversation. It would be the highest presumption to offer the present work as perfect, but, so far as opportunity and pains could conduce to render it complete, exertion has not been spared. Barbarisms. It is necessary to notice certain barbarisms which have crept into use, introduced by sailors, stockmen, and others, who have paid no attention to the aboriginal tongue, in the use of which both blacks and whites labour under the mistaken idea that each one is conversing in the other's language. The following list contains the most common in use in these parts : — ■ Barbarism. Meaning. Ahoriginal proper ivord. Boojery,* good. murrorong. Bail, no., keawai. Bpg.y, to hcdlie, nurougkilliko. Bimble, earth, purrai. Boomiring, a wea-pon. turrama [the ' boomerang'.] Budgel, sickness, munni. * Captain John Hunter (1793) g\\eshidgerce, "good," and Lieut-Col, Collins (1802) gives boodjerre "good," both at Port Jackson. Some of the other words condemned here as barbarisms are used in local dialects. — Ed. THE AUTHOR S PREFACE. Cudgel, tohacco. kuttnl, lit.,* smoke. Oammon, falsehood, nakoiyaye. <ribber, a stone, tunung. Oummy, a spear. warre. Ooonyer, a hut. kokere. Hillimung, a shield, koreil. Jiu, a wife. porikunbai. •Jerrund, fear. kinta. Kangaroo, t a 71 animal, karai, and various names. Carbon, large. kauwul. Mije, little. mitti ; warea. Mogo, axe, baibai. jMurry, many. nmraiai ; also, kauwul-kauwul. Pickaninnej, child. wounai. Pi jailer. to sj)eak, wiyelliko. Tuggerrer, cold, takara. Wikby, bread. kuDto, vegetable provisions. "Waddv, a cudf/el, kotirra. Wommerrer, a loeapon, yakirri ; used to throw the spear. * Used for literally, throughout. t See note, page viii. — Ed. [UHIVBESITY] CHAPTEE, I. PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. PEONUifCiATioN" is the right expression of the sounds of the> words of a language. Words are composed of syllables, and syllables of let'terf=t. The letters of the language of the aborigines of New South AVales are these : — * ABDE&IKLMNNgOPETUWT. JVofe. — It is very doubtful if d belongs to their alphabet ; the natives generally use the t. YOWELS. A is pronounced as in the English words 'are,' 'far,' 'tart.* E is pronounced as slender a in ' fate,' or e in ' where.' I is. pronounced as the short i in 'thin,' 'tin,' 'virgin,' or e in ' England.' O is pronounced as in the English ' no.' U is pro- nounced as 00 in the words ' cool,' ' cuckoo.' When two vowels meet together they must be pronounced distinctly; as, no a, niuwoa, the pronoun 'he'; bo unto a, ' she ;' so also when double vowels are used in the word ; as, wiyeen, 'have spoken.' A diphthong is the union of two vowels to form one sound ; as» 1. ««, as in kiil-ai, ' wood'; wai-tawan, ' the large mullet.* 2. rtw, as in nan- wai, ' a canoe' ; tau- wi 1, ' that... may eat.' 8. w, as in niu-woa, the pronoun 'he' ; paipiu-wil, 'that it may appear.' ATo/e. — ai is sounded as in the English word ' eye' ; au as in * cow' ; iu as in ' pew.' Consonants. G is sounded hard, but it often has also a soft guttural sound ; g and k are interchangeable, as also k and t. Ng is peculiar to the language, and sounds as in 'ring,' 'bung,* whether at the beginning, middle, or end of a word. E, as heard in ' rogue,' ' rough ' ; whenever used, it cannot b& pronounced too roughly; when double, each letter must be heard distinctly. * See PiioxoLOGY, page 3.— Ed. 2 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. Tlie other consonants are sounded as in English. Europeans often confound J with ^, because of a middle sound which the natives use in speaking quickly ; so also they confound t with y, from the same cause. Accents, The language requires but one marked accent, wdiich serves for the prolongation of the syllable ; as, b 6 n, ' him' ; bun, the root of ' to smite.' The primitive sound is thus retained of the vowel, which otherwise would be affected by the closing consonant ; as, bun, the root of the verb 'to be ' accidental, rhymes with the English word 'bun,' bat biin, 'to smite,' rhymes with ' boon.' OfiTHOGBAPHT. In forming syllables, every consonant may be taken separately and be joined to each vowel. A consonant between two vowels must go to the latter ; and two consonants coming together must be divided. The only exception is Ng, which is adopted for w^ant of another character to express the peculiar nasal sound, as heard in hanger, and, consequently, is never divided. The following are general rules : — 1. A single consonant between two vowels must be joined to the latter; as, ku-ri, 'man'; yu-rig, 'away'; wai-ta, 'depart.' 2. Two consonants coming together must always be divided ; as, tet-ti, 'to be dead,' ' death' ; b u g-g ai, ' new.' 3. Two or more vowels are divided, excepting the dipthongs ; as, gato-a, 'it is I ' ; yu-aip a, 'thrust out.' A hyphen is the mark when the dipthong is divided ; as, ka-uw^a, 'may it be ' (a wish) ; ka-am a, 'to collect together, to assemble.' 4. A vowel in a root-syllable must have its elementary sound ; as, b u n k i 1 1 i, ' the action of smiting ' ; t a, the root-form of the verb, ' to eat.' Accentuation". In general, dissyllables and trisyllables accent the first syllable ; as, p u n t i m a i, ' a messenger ' ; p i r i w a 1, 'a chief or king.' Compound derivative words, being descriptive nouns, have the accent universally on the last syllable; as, wiyellikan, 'one who speaks,' from wiyelli, 'the action of speaking'; so also, from the same root, wiyelli-gel, 'a place of speaking,' such as, ' a pulpit, the stage, a reading desk.' Verbs in the present and the past tenses have their accent on those parts of the verb which are significant of these tenses ; as, tatan, 'eats'; wiyan, 'speaks'; wiya, 'hath told.' This must be particularly attended to; else a mere affirmation will become an imperative, and so on; as, ka-uwa, 'be it so, (a wish) ; k a-u w a, ' so it is ' (an affirmation). THE GRAMMAE. 3 In the future tenses, tlie accent is alwa3's on the last syllable but one, whether the word consists of two syllables or of more as, tanun, ' shall or will eat' ; wiyanim, ' shall or will speak' b link i Hi nun, 'shall or will be in the action of smiting' bunniin, 'shall or will smite.' Present participles have the accent on the last syllable ; as, b u n k i 1 1 i n, ' now in the action of smiting'; wiyellin, 'now in the action of talking, speak- ing.' Past participles have their accent on the last syllable but one ;" as, b li n k i 1 1 i a 1 a, ' smote and continued to smite,' which, with a pronoun added, means ' they fought.' But the participial particle, denoting the state or condition of a person or thing, has the accent on the antepenultimate ; as, b u n t 6 a r a, ' that which is struck, smitten, beaten.' Thus, there are two accents — one the radical accent, the other the shifting one which belongs to the particles. Emphasis. The aborigines always lay particular stress upon the particles in all their various combinations, whether added to substantives to denote the cases, or to verbs to denote the moods or tenses. But, when attention is particularly commanded, the emphasis is thrown on the last syllable, often changing the termination into -0 li ; as, w a 1 1 a - w a 1 1 a, the imperative, ' move,' or ' be quick' ; but to urgently command would be w a 1 1 a - w a 11 - o u, dwelling double the time on the -oii. To emphatically charge a person with anything, the emphasis is placed on the particle of agency ; as, g a t 6 a, ' it is I ; ' g i n 1 6 a, ' it is thou.' [The PnoxoLOGT of the Australian Langttages. Of late years increasing attention has been given to the con- sideration of the Australian languages, and numerous vocabu- laries have been collected. But it is somewhat unfortunate that these collections of words have been made, in most instances, by those who did not appreciate the principles of phonology ; often the spelling of the words does not adequately represent the sounds to be conveyed. Enough, however, is now known to permit a general estimate to be made of the sounds in the languages or rather dialects, for — notwithstanding many tribal A'ariations in vocables and grammar — the Australian language is essentially one. General Eeatures. Looking at the language as a whole, and examining its features, we at once observe the prominence of the long vowels, a and u, and the frequency of the guttural and nasal sounds ; the letter r with a deeper trill than in English, is also a common sound. AN ArSTRALTAN LANGrAGE. Vowels. The essential vowels are a, t, u, all pronounced with a full and open voice; a as in the English word 'father' ; i as in 'seen' ; and It as 00 in ' moon.' The Australian a long is, in fact, a guttural sound, and is so deceptive to the ear that in many vocabularies the syllable ba is written bah, or even bar ; this a has a sti'ong sympathy for the letter r, which is nearly a guttural in Australia, and when the two come together, as in mar, the sound of both is deepened, and so ma>' is pronounced something like mah-rr. This guttural combination of a and r has hitherto been repre- sented by arr, as in the word bundarra ; but, as both the sounds are normal, I prefer to write bundara, especially as the accent in such a w^ord always falls on the penult. Our blacks also are Orientals in this respect, that, while in English there is a ten- dency to hurry over the open vowels in a word, they dwell on them, and say bd-bd, where we say pa-pa, or even pa-pa. The Australian i is ee long ; sometimes the sound of it is pro- longed, and then resembles the sound of e in ' scene ' ; this sound of i is represented by i in this volume. In Australian names and words, the sound of it long is com- monly indicated by oo. This is quite unnecessary ; for the sound of u, as it is in 'pull,' is its natural sound. I will, therefore, make it a rule that tt, before a single consonant, stands for that sound. There are two more long vowels, e and d ; these come from a combination and modification of the sounds of a, i, and u ; e comes from the union of a and i, as in the English ' sail ' ; o from a and u, as in the French ' faute,' or perhaps from a direct. AVherever necessary, an accent has been placed on e and o (thus, e, 6), to show that they are the long vowels. Besides these, there are the short vowels, a, e, t, 6, il. As a matter of convenience, it has been usual to indicate the short sound of these vowels, wherever they occur in Australian words, by doubling the consonant which follows them ; thus also, in English, we have ' manner,' and, in French, ' bonne,' ' mienne.' This plan seems unobjectionable, and has been followed here ; such a word, then, as bukka will have the short sound of w; and such words as bundara, where the u is followed by a hardened consonant, or by two different C(msonants, will have the w short, unless marked otherwise. If any one of those vowels which are usually short be followed by a simjle consonant, the vowel may then be pronounced long ; as iUa, tla ; but the short sound of n, in such a position, will be marked by u in this volume. In the declension of the verbs, our author writes -mulla, -kulli, and the like ; this spelling I have allowed to stand, although I think that it should have been -malla, -kalli. THE GRAMMAR. 5 Besides these ten, there is in Australian a peculiar vowel sound ■which appears only iu a closed syllable, and chiefly before xhe nasal ng ; it takes the short sound of either a, e, i, o, or u. For instance, we have the word for ' tont^ue ' set down as t a 1 1 a n g, talleng, tulling, talluu, and the Avord for 'hand' as m a t a, m e t a, m i t a ; and so also with other examples. I regard these variations as proceeding from an obscure utterance of a, the same dulled a which appears in English in the word ' vocal,' and is represented by other vowels in the English ' her,' ' sir,' ' son.' I have introduced a as the sign for this sound ; a, there- fore, as iu the syllables of talag, etc., will mean a dull, volatile sound of a, which, iu the various dialects, may have any one of the other short vowels substituted for it. In the Malay language similarly, the a — that is, the letter ain, not fjhain — takes the sound of anj'- one of the short vowels. These six paragraphs seem to contain all that is noticeable iu the long and short sounds of the vowels a, e, i, o, u. Then, we have the diphthongs ; «/, as in ' eye' ; oi, as in ' coin' ; au, as in 'cow'; iu, as in 'new'; but ai is apt to become o/, and sometimes, though rarely, ei. The summary of the vowel sounds will thus be : — Vowels — a, i, u ; i ; 0, 5 ; a, 8, i, u ; u ; a (volatile). Semi- vowels — w, y. Diphthongs — ai, oi, au, iu. I have admitted lo and y, because they are already established in Australian words. I consider lo, as a vowel, to be entirely redundant in our alphabet ; y may be useful at the end of an open syllable to represent the softened sound of i. Even when w ov y stands as an initial letter in such words as wata, yuring, ■they are both superfluous, for wata might as well be written uata, and yuring as luring. But in words such as wa-kal, 'one,' the w stands lor aui original h, and is therefore a consonant ; and, similarly, in yarro, 'an eg?,' the y probably represents a primitive Jc. In such cases, lo and y are consonants. COXSOXAXTS. The (jufturals are Jc, y, Ji, ny. The ^ is a much more frequent sound in Australian than its softer brother y ; indeed, I am iuclined to think that we could safely regard k as the native sound of this guttural, and set down y as merely a dialect variety of it. Eor the reasons given above, I discard the use of h at the end of an open syllable ; as an initial, h occurs in only a few words, such as h i 1 a m a n, 'a shield ' ; but the guttural- nasal ny is one of the distinctive sounds of the Australian alphabet, and is the same sound as the ny in the English word, * sing.' It appears both as an initial and as a final ; its use at the beginning of a syllable severs the Australian language from the Arvan family, and gives it kinship with the African. 6 AN AUSTBALIAX LAXGUAGE. Ill Samoan and in other Polynesian dialects, nrj is very common as an initial, and as a final too in the whole of Melanesia. In this respect the Polynesian and the Melanesian langnages are akin to the Anstralian. The Malay also uses ufj both as an initial and as a final. Some Australian dialects nasalise the A', as in the English word ' ink '; to this there are parallels in the Melanesia!! languages, and there the sound is represented by h or q. In Tamil, one of the Dravidian languages of India, with which our Australian language is supposed to be connected, one forma- tive suffix is y?/, nasalised into ngu ; it is used as the initial sound of a syllable, as in ni-ngu, 'to quit' ; to this extent it corresjioiids with our ncj. Our author, in his edition of 1831, has in some words a doubled fjuttural-nasal, as in bungngai. As the second of these is only a cj attracted by the nasal that precedes it, I have written such words with g-g. In fact, the double so!ind proceeds froi!! the one nasal, as iii our English word ' finger.' Some of the Melanesian languages have this double sound both with cj and with Tc. But in both of its uses, initial and final, the Australian ncj arises from the nasalisation of the guttural (] ; it is a simple sound, and should therefore be represented by only one letter, not by the digraph nrj. In Sanskrit, the symbol for it as a filial, for there it is never used as an initial and seldom as a final, is ii- ; but, as the Australian ng comes from y, I prefer to use g as its symbol. If we compare the Dravidian pag-al, 'a day,' with the Melane- sian bung, 'a day,' it is clear that the ng proceeds from a g^ for the original root of both words is the verb bha, 'to sine.' Eurther examination may, perhaps, show that our ng is, in some cases, a modification of the sound oin, as in the Erench ' bon,' 'bieii,' or even of a final vowel, but at present that does not seem to me at all likely. Besides ng, there are the two subdued nasal sounds of n and in — that is, n before d, and m before & ; these harden the con- sonant that follows, and produce such sounds as nda^ mba. The same sounds are common in Eiji — a Melanesian region — but not in Polynesia. Of the palataJs, the language has cli, as in the English word 'church,' and y, as in 'jam'; to these may be added the conso- nant //. The ch and the ./ sounds are, in some vocabularies, printed as tcli and Oj ; that is quite unnecessary. I have adopted 6 as the symbol for cZ*, because it is a simple sound. The only cerebral that we have is r, although the sound of it is often so asperated as to resemble the Dravidian rough and hard r. Our r is neither the Arabic vibrating gliv, nor the Xorthumbrian hurr, but is more like the rolled r of the Parisians. TUE gba:mmar. 7 The dentals are t, cl, n, I. As in the case of the gutturals Jc aud q, so with the dentals t and d; it is often difficult to decide whether a native, in pronouncing a word, is using the one or the other ; so also with p and h in the next paragraph. The liquids n and I are really dentals, their sound being produced by the movement of the tongue on the teeth. In connection with the dentals t and d, it would be interesting to know if our natives ever cerebralise them in pronunciation ; for, if they do, that would be another link to connect them with the Dravidiaus; but the differ- ence of sound is too minute to be detected by an ordinary observer. A variant of t is th, for our blacks say both Ippatha and Ippata; the th has the same sound as in the English words, 'thin,' ' breath.' It is possible that, in Australian, this th some- times takes the place of the absent s. In the Melanesian region also this sound of th is common, and is represented often by d. Some Australian tribes have also th sonant, as in the English words 'this,' 'that'; the Melanesians have a corresponding sound which is represented in Eijian by c. If we could revive the Anglo-Saxon characters for these simple sounds, such anomalies would cease. The labials are p, i, and m ; the m, as in other languages, is only a b sound with the breathing allowed to escape through the nose. Some collectors of words have set down the sounds of/" and V as existing in Queensland, but I cannot admit them without further evidence ; they are not found in New South "Wales ; the natives here say Ucbiny for Waverley. In addition to these elementary sounds, there are the conjunct sounds obtained by adding the aspirate h to some of the con- sonants. These are ph, bk, th, dh, kh, gh, and in each of them the aspirate is separatc^d, in pronouncing it, from the consonant to which it is attached, as in Sanskrit, or as in the English words, u^-7all, doy-Z/ouse, &c. Some of these combined sounds I have heard distinctly from the lips of a native, and I have no doubt that the others also exist. The sibilants have no place in Australia. One vocabulary gives stha as an initial syllable, but that must be a mistake ; another gives dtha ; that also must be a mistake. It ought to be noted here that in many Australian tribes, when a young man passes through the Bora ceremonies of initiation, one or two of his upper front teeth are knocked out, and this is a portion of the accustomed rites. The loss of these teeth must have had an important influence on the utterance of the dentals and sibilants in past time, and so on the language itself Peculiarities. In some dialects, there is a tendency to insert the sound of y after t and k; as, tyala, 'to eat,' instead of tala. So also in English we sometimes he^v gijarden for garden and kyind for kina. 5 AN AIJSTRALTAN LANGUAGE. Some dialects say kedlu, for which the usual form would be k ellu. But it is possible that the d here is radical, and so maintains its j^lace. In the Dieycrie tribe, near Cooper's Creek, South Australia, many words have in them the peculiar sound ndr, as raun dru, ' two,' which is also the Tamil word for ' three.' The Tamil is fond of this sound, and so is the language of Madagascar ; the Fijian prefixes the sound of n to d, so that dua is pronounced ndua. The sound of ndr comes by accretions from a single r, and so the simpler forms of the Tamil mundru are muru, mudu. The dialect of King George's Sound, "Western Australia, has this peculiarity, that it delights in closed syllables ; for there the twonga of the inland tribes is pronounced twonk, and katta is kat. Summary. The consonants, then, may be thus arranged : — Gutturals — k kh g gh g h. PalataU — 6 ... j ... ... y. Cerebrals — ? ... ... ... ... r. Dentals-— t th d dh n 1. Labials — p ph b bh m Liquids — n 1. The vowels are Jive in number. If we reckon the guttural- nasal^ as a separate sound (which, considering its place in the language, we may justly do), but omit the nasalised k as un- common, and count n and I as dentals only, the simple conso- nant sounds ai*e fifteen in number. To these add the two sounds of f/«, and lo and y as consonants ; but omit the six aspirated consonants, for they are not simple sounds. The Australian alphabet thus consists of twentij-fouY simple ele- mentary sounds. — Ed.] THE ailAMMAE. CHAPTER 11. THE PAETS OF SPEECH. Or THE Substitute for the Article. The general meaning of a noun is expressed by using its simple form; as, m a k o r o, 'a fish ' or ' fishes' ; t i b b i n, a 'bird ' or ' birds,' in a general sense ; k u 1 ai, ' wood,' or ' a stick.' To make these plural, the plural pronoun would be attached ; as, unni makoro, tar a makoro, 'this fish,' 'these fishes,' meaning that they are here present ; to express ' the fish' as au active agent we must say gali m akoro, 'this fish,' sc, did some action. And so also with respect to all nouns, as will be explained under the head of pronouns. Of Substantives. Ts'ouns are the * names of persons, things, actions, and places.' They are Proper, when used as the name of any individual person or tiling ; Common and Collective, when denoting the names of things singly or together; as, kiiri, 'man' oi' 'mankind'; karai, ' kangaroo ' ; makoro,' fish.' A pronoun attached shows the number, whether singular or plural. Nouns which describe par- ticular applications of the meaning of the verb are formed from the roots of their verbs ; e.y., w i, the root of the verb 'speak,' gives wiyellikan, ' one who speaks,' ' a speaker'; w iy ai y e, ' one who always talks,' 'a talker,' 'chatterer.' When names of things are appropriated to a person so as to be the person's name, that name must be declined in the first declension of nouns, to show it is the name of a person and not of the thing ; e.ff., tintig ' a crab,' belongs to the third declension, and the genitive would be t i n t i g - k 0 b a, ' belonging to a crab ' ; but when it is the name of a person, its genitive would be t i n t i g - li m b a, ' belong- ing to Crab,' — Mr. or Mrs., according to the context. There are a few terminations of gender in certain nouns, but not generally; as, pori-b a i, 'a husband'; porikiin-bai, 'a wife'; yinal, 'a son'; yinalkun, 'a daughter'; but piriwal, means a 'king' or 'queen,' according to the gender of the pro- noun attached. To animals, in most instances, there are different 10 AN AI'STRALTAN^ LAIS^GTTAGE. words used for the male and for the female ; as, w a r i k a 1, * a he-dog'; t i n k o, 'a she-dog.' Names of places are generally descriptive, as, puntei, the 'narrow' place ; biilwara, the 'high' place; tirabinba, the 'toothed' place; bimkilli-gel, 'the place for fighting,' the field of battle. Names of countries have a declension peculiar to place, and in the genitive have a feminine and a masculine termination; ejj., Englandkal, means 'English- man,' the termination being masculine ; but Englandkalin, means 'Englishwoman,' the termination being feminine; so also, untikal, 'of this place,' masculine; untikalin, 'of this place,' feminine. A noun is an adjective, a verb, or an adverb, according to the particle used with it, or the position of the word in the sentence ; as, p ital, 'joy'; ])it aim alii, 'to cause joy '; p i t a 1 1 i k a n, 'a joyful being'; p i t a 1 k a t a n, 'to exist joyfully'; murrarag, 'good'; murraragtai, 'the good,' s<?., person; m u r r a r a g u m ti, 'good done,' ' well done,' 'properly done.' Of tue Declension of Nouns, etc. There are seven declensions of nouns, according to which all adjectives and participles, as well as nouns, are declined. Nouns are declined according to their use and termination. When used for the name of an individual person, they are de- clined in the first declension, whatever may be the termination of the word ; but when used as the names of places, they follow the declension of place-names. Common nouns are declined in the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth declensions, according to their respective terminations. Of the two nominative cases, the one is simply declarative, and in it the subject is inactive; as, 'this is a bird,' unni ta t i b b i n ; the second nominative is used when the subject is represented as doing something; as, tibbinto tatan, 'the bird eats' ; in which case the particles ending in o are affixed, to denote the agent, according to the terminations of the respective nouns* ; hence the following general rules for the use of the particles of agency : — - 1. Nouns or participles ending in * or n affix -to ; as, K i k 0 i , 'a native cat,' kikoi-to, ' the cat ' f ; Gurrulli, the active participle, or the infinitive, ' to hear, believe, obey,' gurrulli-to, 'faith, belief ' .' 2. Nouns ending in ng, a, e, o, k, require -Jco; as, Maiya, ' a snake,' maiya-ko. ' the snake '; K u r i , 'a man,' k li r i - k o , ' the man ' ; AVoiyo, 'grass,' wo iy o - ko , 'the grass .' But when r precedes o, the noun belongs to the fifth declension. * See ' A(je7d-7ioini)iatu'e case,' page 11. t Supply here, and wherever the space occurs, some transitive predicate, as ' did, does, or will do, something.' THE GRAMMAR. if 3. Nouns ending in I require - Zo to be annexed ; as, P u n n a 1 , ' the sun,' p u n n a 1 - 1 o , ' the sun ' ; Y i n a 1 , 'a son,' y i n a 1 - 1 o , ' the son 4. Nouns of throe syllables ending in r o require the accent to be shifted to the o ; as, M a k o r o , ' fish ,' ni a k o r - o, ' the fish 5. Nouns of three s^dlables ending in r a change the a into 6 ; as, Kokera, ' a hut, house ,' koker-6, ' the house .' M a 1 1 a r a , ' the hand,' m a 1 1 a r - 6 , ' the hand .' 6. Xouns of four syllables ending in r require r 6 to be added ; as, K u 1 m 0 t i u r , 'a woman's name ,' K u 1 m o t i u r - r d Note. —The participle form of the verb in the passive voice, when used as an agent, changes the last syllable into r 6 ; as, B u n t o a r a , ' that which is struck ,' b u n t 0 a r - 6 , ' that which is struck ' ; Yellawaitoara, ' that which sits, squats,' y e 1 1 a w a i t 0 a r - d , ' that which sits Of the Cases or Nouxs x^d Pronouns. It is by the particles that the whole progress of the mind of the speaker is shown, and only by the right use of them may we expect to render ourselves correcth'^ intelligible to the aborigines. The following are used in the declension of nouns and pronouns, according to the terminations and cases of these : — L. The Simple-nominative case merely declares the person or thing, or the quality, and has no particle added ; as, g a t o a, 'I' ; kuri, 'man'; kiilai, 'wood'; k e k a 1, 'sweet'; m u r r ar a g, ' good.' But particles are used to form nouns ; as, b u n k i y e, ' a smiter,' from the root bun, 'to smite'; k e k al k e, 'sweet- ness'; or, are used to transform the noun into a verb, which merely declares the abstract action ; as, b li n k i 1 1 i, ' the action of smiting.' 2. The Agent-nominative case denotes the person who operates, and is always known by the addition of the particle o ; but this particle of agency is preceded by a servile consonant, or is accented according to the last syllable of the noun. The personal and instrumental interrogatives, to? 'who?' ko? 'what thing?' are unchangeable; the jjarticles of agency thus attached to the noun are -to,-ko,-lo,-o,-ro. 3. 21ie Genitive case shows the relation of one thing con- sidered as belonging, in some manner, to another ; in the inter- rogative 'who,' and in the names of persons, it requires - li m b a ; as, g a n - u m b a ? ' whose ?' T h r e 1 k e 1 d - u m b a, ' Threlkeld's' ; piriwal-umba, 'the king's ' ; but things and persons require -koba; as, minarig-koba? ' belonging to what thing ? ' kuri-koba, ' belonging to man.' The dual, the plural, and the singular feminine pronouns form the genitive by affixing -ba 12 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. to the accusative; as, g^^iii"^^> 'belonginp; to us two'; gearun-ba, * belouging to us,' 'ours'; bounnoun-ba, ' belonging to her,' ' hers ' The othei* singular pronouns add the particles to a variant form of the root-word ; as, c m m o -u m b a, 'belonging to me,' 'mine'; giro-umba, ' belonging to thee,' 'thine.' But time and place require -kal, and-kalin; as, bugeai-kal, 'belonging to the present ' period of time now becoming ; E n g 1 a n d -k a 1, 'a man belonging to England,' 'an Englishman'; E ngland -kalin, 'a woman belonging to Eng- land,' 'an Englishwoman'; untikal, 'hereof,' 'belonging to this jjlace.' 4. The Dative case shows the ultimate object to which an action tends; as, for a person to possess and use a thing in any way ; it is expressed by adding - n ii g to the interrogative pronoun and to names of persons only, but -ko to all other nouns, and to the abstract action, which is thereby formed into a supine or a con- struct infinitive ; as, b xi n k i 11 i k o, 'for-to smite.'* But motion towards a person or thing, as opposed to motion from the place where the person or thing is, requires the following particles according to the various terminations of the nouns; viz., - t a k o, - k a k 0, - 1 a k o, - a k o, - r a k o ; that is, the particle - k o, pre- ceded by a syllable, the consonant of which varies according to the termination of the noun to which it is affixed ; the personal pronoun requires -kink o, and place takes -kako; see table of declensions. 5. The Accusative case, which marks direct action on the person, not merely towards the per.-^on, is the object of a transitive verb. The personal pronouns have distinct particles ; see their declension. But names of persons have the terminating particle - n ii g added; so also the interrogatives of person, place, and thing ; as, g a n - n u g ? ' whom ?' or ' who is the direct object ?' w o n - n u g? ' where ?' o?' ' where nt?' min-nug? 'what?' or 'what object?' so also, T h r e 1 k e 1 d - n u g is the objective or accusative case. All other common substantives, not derivatives, are placed before the active verb without any change from the simple nominative ; nor can error arise therefrom ; because when they are lised as agents, the sign of that case will be attached ; as, k a r a i b u w a, 'smite the kangaroo ; butkaraito tia bunkulla, 'the kan- garoo struck me,' equivalent to, ' I was struck by the kangaroo.' (5. In the Vocative case, the particle a - 1 a or e - 1 a, calling for attention, is ])refixed to the form of the nominative, not the agent-nominative, case ; as, ala piriwal! 'Oking!' equivalent to 'May it ])lease your majesty.' 7. Ablative case. Certain postpositions are used to indicate this case; as, (I) k a i, meaning 'from,' 'concerning,' 'about,' 'on account of,' used only to proper names and pronouns ; but for * See footnote, page 24. THE GRAM MAT?. 13 common nouns, -t in, -1 i n,-in, - r in, 'from,' 'on account of,' the consonant varyinj; according to the termination of the word to which it is attached ; (2) k i n - b i r u g, meaning 'from,' used only to pronouns, is opposed to the dative of 'motion towards'; proper names, whether of persons or phices, require k a - b i r u g ; but common nouns reqiiire, according to their terminations, -ta-birug, -ka-birug, -la-birug, -a-birug, -ra-birug, to mark ' motion from,' as opposed to the dative ; (3) k a t o a, meaning to be ' with ' as an agent, is alExed to personal pronouns and proper names of persons only ; but persons, things, and places annex, according to their respecti^'^e terminations, -t o a, -koa, -1 0 a, -o a, -roa, meaning 'by,' 'through,' 'with,' 'near'; no causative effects are implied in any of these particles ; (4) ka-ba, meaning 'at' or 'on,' and kin-ba, present 'with' a person at his place, are locative. Por nouns, these postpositions are annexed mostly to the form of the simple nominative ; for pronouns, commonly to the first dative form. Of Adjectites A^"D Pakticiples. Adjectives have no distinctive endings ; it depends entirely on their situation, or on the particles used, whether words are nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs. For instance, if murrarag, 'good,' yarakai, 'bad,' and konein, 'j^retty,' be declined according to their terminations, with the particles of agency affixed, they would then become agents, and consequently nouns; as, mnrraragko, ' the good,' yarakaito, 'the bad or evil,' k o n e i n t 0, ' the pretty' or ' the beauty, ' respectively, . . . . ;* but participles in the passive voice terminate always in the com- pound paitiele -toara; the root of the verb is prefixed either with or without the causative particles, according to the sense required ; as, from k i y u, the verb ' to roast with fire, to scorch, to broil,' comes kiy ub a- 1 6 ar a, 'that which is roasted'; k i y u b a - 1 6 a r a b a g, ' I am roasted '; kiyuba-toard, ' that which is roasted '*. Adjectives denoting abundance are often formed by a redupli- cation; as, murrarag, 'good'; m u r r ar a g-m ur r ara g, 'excellent, abundance of good'; kauwal, 'great, large, big'; k a u w a 1 - k a II w a 1, ' many, abundant.' Adjectives denoting want are expressed by affixing a negative word ; as, m u r r a r a g-k o r i e n, ' worthless,' lit., ' good-not.' Adjectives denoting resemblance require the particle -kiloa, 'like,' to be affixed; as, w onnai-kilo a, 'child-like.' ' like a child ' ; but, if they denote habit, the joarticle -k e i is affixed ; as, wonnai-kei, 'childish.' * See footnote, page 10. 14 AX AUSTRALIAN LANCiUAGE. Adjectives denoting character, manner, or habit, are formed from the roots of verbs, and have the particles y e or k e i added e.y., bim, the root of the verb 'to smite,' gives bunkiye, '; smiter'; whereas b n n k i 11 i-k an would be 'one who smites' wogkal 'to be a fool'; wogkal-kei, 'foolish'; so also gura-kei 'wise, skilful'; b u k k a-k e i, 'ferocious, savage' kekal-kei, 'sweet, nice, pleasant.' Derived forms of the verb also give nouns in -ye; as w i y - a i - y e, ' a talker.' Of Comparatives and Superlatives. The following are the methods used in comparison, there being no particles to express degrees of quality : — 1. The comparative of equality is formed thus : — Kekal-kei unni yanti unuo a-k i 1 o a, ' sweet this as that- like,' i.e., 'this is as sweet as that.' 2. The comparative of inferiority is formed by putting the negative particle korien after the adjective; thus: — Kekal-korien unni yanti unno a-k i 1 o a, ' sweet-not this as that-like,' i.e , ' this is not so sweet as that.' 3. The comparative of superiority is formed by the use of the word k au wal-k an w al, a redu2)lication of 'great,' and the particle of negation added to that which is inferior ; as : — Kekal-kei unni k au w al-kau w al keawai unno a, 'sweet this great-great, not that,' i.e., 'this is most sweet.' Of Words DExoTixti Dumber. Numei'als are only cardinal ; they are declined as nouns, so far as they extend ; namely, w a k a 1, ' one '; b u 1 a, b u 1 o a r a, 'two'; goro, 'three'; wariin, 'four'; beyond this there are no further numbers, but the general term k au w al-k au w al, ' much or many' is used. The interrogative of quantity or number, minnan? ' which present ?', means 'how many?'; the answer Avould be given b}^ any of the above numbers ; or by kau w al- kau wal kiiri, ' many men' ; or by ware a kuri, ' few men.' Ordinal numbers can be expressed only by declining the noun to which they may be attached, the ordinal adjective being also subject to declension, according its own termination, indepen- dently of the termination of the noun ; as : — P u r r e a g-k a g o r o-k a, ' the third day ' ; k u 1 a i-t o a g o r o- k o a, ' by, beside the third tree.' Bui o a r a is used in the dual, and is of the sixth declension. There are also two other expressions which may be noticed here ; namely, w i n t a, equivalent to ' a part or portion of, some of; also, yantin, equivalent to 'the whole or all'; as, unti-bo winta kuri, 'here be part of the men,' 'some of the men are here'; unti-bo yantin kuri, 'here be all the men,' ' all the men are here.' THE GEAMMAB. 15 Of PrO>'OU>'S. The personal prououus of the first, second, and third persons singular, have two forms, the one used with the verb as a subject to it, the other used absolutely in answer to an interrogative, or with the verb for the sake of emphasis. The latter form, when used as a subject, precedes the predicate, and always calls atten- tion to the person and not to the verb. These forms will there- fore be designated Personal-nominative pronouns, and marked as such ; thus, Xom. 1 means Personal-nominative ; but the personal pronouns used as the nominative to verbs and never by them- selves, nor in answer to interrogatives, will be marked Xom. 2, to denote Yerbal-nominative, as the verb is then the jDrominent feature to which attention is called, and not the person ; these always follow the verb. The strictest attention must be given to the use of the pronouns in all their persons, numbers, and cases ; for by them the singular, dual, and plural numbers arc known ; by them the active, the passive, the reciprocal, and re- flexive states of the verb ; as will be exemplified in the conjugation of the verbs, as well as in the declension of the pronouns. The plural personal pronouns have only one nominative form to each person ; so also, the singular feminine pronoun, which is only of one description. The dual number also has but one pronoun in the nominative ease ; but it has a case peculiar to this language — a nominative and an accusative case conjoined in one word ; just as if such English pronouns as I and thee, thou and him, could become I-thee, thou-him. This will be called the Conjoined- dual form. DECLENSION OF THE NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. [The declension of the nouns and pronouns is effected by means of postpositions, as has been already explained in this chapter. The forms of the ablative case may be indefinitely multiplied in number by using other postpositions than those shown in the following paradigms.* — Ed.] [* In the paradigms of the pronouns and the nouns, Horn. 1 is the nomin- ative case in its simple form, used absolutely ; JVom. 2 is the form used as the nominative of the agent or instrument ; the Gen. means, as usual, ' of,' or 'belonging to' ; Dat. 1 is the dative of ' possession' or 'use,' = ' for' (him, her, it), to have and to use ; Daf. 2 is a sort of locative case ' towards ' (him, &c. ) ; the Ace. is the ' object ' form of the word ; the Voc. is used in 'calling'; Abl. 1 denotes 'from,' 'on account of,' as a cause; Abl. 2, 'from,' 'away from,' 'procession from' ; Abl. 3, 'with,' 'in company with' ; Abl. 4, 'being with,' ' remamuig with,' 'at'; occasionally there is an Abl. 5, which means merely place where, 'at.' — Ed.] IG AN AL'STEALIAJS" LANGUAGE. 5 •== £ ^ ^ '7 ^ ^i i£ ^ ^ ^ o o o o c o a w w « w w ^ -< o ;^ o 12; o I— I r<; w 1-^ o w fi w 1=1 q ^ ^ ^ 'A o 1—1 p pi ^ cj ,5 --.da w w w w '^ u THE GEAM3IAE. 17 I c3 c3 S rt O.i: 2 ;? ^.5 t^ r^ ■>; - p a 6 cc Cl I .S o to W it -3 "^ 1 •2 SciC tt it if CD c c c c S S 3 3 o A o i — — ri-s 'EcTc t£ ic •si ii ^^^^ it ic it ic c3 =55 =S5S O 3SS =:3=!S '*t' oco '^Sooco .£ .£ .- .- „ "■ .5: .- .b .b '3)._ Tc it it .5 ,3 So it it iO it it ic iO ; C = = (i ooo 0=222 T-t 'M rH C<I tei !>s (^ ->; U C^ "rt 'rt "ci 'd '3 "S '^ "rt ic it iO ic it it i( iO fe5 C5 q "^ 18 AN AUSTEALIAN LANGUAGE. DECLENSION OF PLACE-NAMES. All Nouns, whatever may be their original signification, when used as proper names of places, are of this declension, if they end in a. M u 1 u b i n b a, the site of 'Newcastle.' Mulubinba, the name of the place, M . . . . Mulubinba-koba, any thing belonging to M . . 2 M ulubinb a- k al, a male belonging to Ji" . . . 3 Mulubinba -kali n, a female belonging to ilf . . Daf. 1 Mulubinba-kako, for M . . , — to remain there 2Mulubinba-kolag, tojf . ., to proceed to Jlf. Ace. 1 Barun Mulubinb a-kal, them (ma*c.) of Jf . . 2 Barun Mulubinba-kalin, them (fern.) of M . 8 Barun yantin Mulubinba-kal, them all of M . Voc. Tapallun Mulubinba-kal, alas ! people of M All. 1 Mulubinba -tin, from, on account of 3/. . 2 Mulubinba-kabirug, from, away from M 3 Mulubinba-koa, by, by way of, through M 4 Mulubinba-kaba, at, on, in M Novi Gen. Note 1. — To form the Ace. singular or dual here, put their pronouns in the place of barun. 2. — The interrogative pronoun signifying place is w o n t a ? 'where is it?' and this maybe substituted for Mulubinba; the example would then become interrogative ; as, w o n t a k a 1 ? 'belonging to what place?' wontakaba? 'where is it at?' ' at what place is it ?' &c. DECLENSION OF THE FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN. The cases of the three jjersonal pronouns and the manner of using them are similar to those of the nouns. Thus, for the first pronoun :■ — Nom. 1. Gato a, I. — This form is used in answer to an inter- rogative of personal agenc}^ ; as, Ganto wiyan? 'Who speaks?' The answer would be g a to a, 'it is I who,' the verb being understood. The next form, bag, would simply declare what I do. 2. Bag, I, — is used in answer to an interrogative of the act ; as, M i n n u g b a 1 1 i n b i ? ' What art thou doing now ?' t at a n b a g, ' I eat ;' ba g must be used, and not the personal-nominative, gato a. 3'IIE GRAMMAB. 19 Gen. E ra mo - ii m ba, Mij or mine, — is used with a noun, or with a substantive verb ; the noun always precedes ; as, kokera emmoumba, 'my house'; but e m m o u m b a t a, 'it is mine.' Dat. 1. E m m 0 - u g, For me, — personally to receive or use. 2. Emmo-ug-kin-ko, To me, — to the place where I am. Ace. Ti-a, Me, — governed by transitive verbs. This pronoun, is used to form the equivalent for the passive voice ; as, b lint an bag, 'I strike;' but bun tan tia, 'I am struck,' lit., 'strikes me.' Vac. Ka-ti-oii, — merely an exclamation ; as, OJi me ! Ah me ! AM. 1. Emmo-u g-kai, From me, — through me, about me. 2. Emm o-u g-k in-biru g, From me, — away from me. 3. Emmo-ug-ka-toa, With me, — in company with me. 4. E m m 0 - u g - k i n - b a. With me, — at my place. These case-endings have the same force for the second and the third pronouns also. Demoxstratite Pronouns. These are so compound in their signification as to include the demonstrative and the relative; e.ff. — 1. gali is equivalent to ' this is that who or which,' — the person or thing spoken of being here present; 2. gala, 'that is that who or which,' — being at hand; 3. galoa, 'that is that Avho or which,' — being beside the person addressed, or not far off. They are thus declined : — Instant. Proximate. Remote. j^ (1. Ga-li Ga-la Gra-loa. ^ 2. TJn-ni Un-noa Un-toa. Gen. Grali-ko-ba G-ala-ko-ba G-aloa-ko-ba. 1. Gali-ko Gala-ko Galoa-ko. ^ " Un-ti-ko Un-ta-ko Un-toa-ko. Aec. TJn-ni Un-noa TJn-toa. 1. Gali-tin Un-ta-tin Galoa-tin Ahl ^ 2. Un-ti-birug Un-ta-birug Un-toa-birug. The pronouns attached to these demonstratives determine their number, whether they are to be singular or plural; as, gali-noa, 'this is he who'; gali-bara, ' these are they who' ; gali-ta, 'it is this that'; gali-tara, 'these are they that.' Other combinations are gali-noa, ' this is he who,' as an agent; unni-noa, ' this is he,' tlie subject. Gali-koba bon, 'this belongs to him,' an idiom ; galoa-koba bon, ' this is that which belongs to him'; these and the other similar genitives, are always followed by the accusative case. 20 an australian language. Reciprocal Pronouns. Gatoa-bo, 'I myself; gintoa-bo, 'thou thyself ; uiu-n'oa- bo, 'he himself; bali-bo, ' our two selves,' and so ou. The ho here attached is merely an intensive particle. Possessive Pronouns. These are the genitive cases of the personal pronouns, and are used thus : — e mmoumba ta, ' mine it is ' ; u n n i t a e m- moumba kokera, ' this is my house' ; unnoa ta giroumba, 'that is thine'; tararan giroumba korien, ' it is not thine,' lit., 'not thine not,' for the idiom of the language requires two negatives here. Indefinite Pronouns. Titurrabul, 'some one,' ' some person or persons', is declined like the fourth declension of nouns ; tarai, ' other,' like the second declension. Absolute Pronouns. Ta, 'it is,' from the substantive verb ; tar a, 'they are,' is of the fifth declension; unni tara, 'these are they which,' as a sub- ject; gali taro, 'these are they wdiich,' as agents ; yantin, 'all,' 'the whole,' is of the second declension; yantin-to, 'all who,' as agents ; wakallo, 'one only,' as an agent. Interrogative Pronouns. The interrogative pronouns are, — gan, 'who? '; min {neut), 'which? what?'; won, 'where?'; ya-koai, 'how? in what man- ner? ' ; ya-kounta, ' wdien? at what time ? ' EXAMPLES OF THE PARTICLES USED AS AFFIXES TO THE IXTEimOGATICES. The Interrogative, Gan-? who ? 2iom. I Gan-ke? who is ? 2 G a n - 1 o ? who is the agent ? Gen. Gan- limb a? wdiose? Dat. 1 Gan-nug? for whom ? — to possess or use. 2 Gan-kin-ko? to whom ? — towards whom ? Ace. G a n - n li g ? whom ? or who is the object ? Voc. All. 1 G a n- k a i ? from whom ? on account of whom ? 2 Gan-kin-birug? from, away from whom ? 3 G a n - k a t 0 a ? in company with whom ? •1 Gau-kin-ba? with whom? remaining with wLom? THE GEAMMAR, ^21 The Interrogative, M i n- ? what ? which ?, applied to things only. Min-arig? what? as, minarig ke unni? what is this ? M i n-n an? Avhat are ? i.e., how many ? M i n-a r i g -k o ? what ? — as the agent or instrument. ]M i n-a r i g - k o b a ? belonging to what ? M i n-a rig-kolag? towards what ? 31 i n-n u g ? what ? — the object of the verb. M i n-a rig-tin? from what cause ? why ? wherefore ? M i n-a rig-birug? from what ? of what ? out of what ? M i n-a rig-kiloa? like what ? M i n-a r i g- k o a ? with what ? together with what ? M i n-a rig- k aba? on what ? The Interrogative of place, "Won-? what place ? where ? "W o n-t a ? where is the place ? what place ? — definite. "W 0 n-n e i n ? where ? which place ? — indefinite. Wo n-t a-k al ? viasc, belonging to what country or place? Wo n-t a-kalin? fern., belonging to what country ? W o n-t a - k o 1 a g ? towards what place ? W 0 n-t a r i g ? to what place ? whither ? W 0 n-n u g ? what place ? where ? — the object of a verb. W 0 n-t a - 1 i n t o ? from what place ? (causative) ; where at ? W 0 n-t a-b i r u g ? from what place ? out of what place ? Wo n-t a-k o a ? through what place ? by what place ? T, ,. 1 1 (Takoai? how? in what manner? interrogatiye adverbs, i -r^ i ^ o t, o ^ i,„j- +• o ° ( Y a k o u n t a .f^ when : at what time z All these particles are used strictly according to the meanings shown above, and cannot be used loosely like some interrogatives in English ; for example, y a k o a i ? ' how ? ' cannot be used to to ask the question ' how many?' for it is an adverb of manner ; ' how many ' must be m i n n a n. AS AUSTEALIAX LANGUAGE. CHAPTER III. OF THE VERB. TiiE verbs undergo no change to indicate either number or person, but the stem-fcn-ms vary in respect to the sort of agency- employed, Avhether personal or instrumental, and also according to the manner of doing or being ; a?, {a) when I do anything to myself, or (b) to another; or (c) I do anything to another and he reciprocally does it to me ; or (d) when I continue to be or to do ; or (e) when the action is doing again, or (/") when per- mitted to be done by this or that agent ; or (y) by another agent ; or (A) when a thing acts as an agent, or (i) is used as an instrument. Verbs are reduplicated to denote an increase of the state or action. All verbs are declined by particles, each of which particles contains in its root the accident attributed to the verb in its various modifications ; as, assertion, affirmation, nega- tion, privation, tendency, existence, cause, permission, desire, purpose; thus are. formed moods, tenses, and participles. The participles are formed after the manner of their respective tenses, and are declined either as verbal nouns or as verbal adjectives. Of the Kinds oe Yekus. Yerbs are either Transifive or Intransitive, both of which are subject to the following accidents, viz. : — 1. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passes from the agent to some external object ; as, 'I strike him,' bun tan bon bag. This constitutes the active ro/cr, which states what an agent does to another, or, what another agent does to him, in which latter case it is equivalent to the English passive A'oice; e.y.jbuntan bon (literally, 'strikes him,') implies that some agent now strikes him, ai\d means ' he is now struck,' the nominative pronoun being omitted in order to call attention to the object. But when this accusative or object is omitted, the attention is then called to the act which the agent performs ; as, bun tan bag, ' I strike,' expressed often by 'I do strike.' 2. Act ive-intrannitive , or those which express an action which has no effect upon any external object except the agent or agents themselves ; that is, the agent is also the object of his own act ; consequently the verb is necessarily reflexive ; as, b u n k i 1 1 e li n bag, 'I struck myself.' This constitutes the ' reflexive ' modifica- tion of tlie verb. TEE GEAMMAK. 23 3. Acfire-fransi'fn'f-reciprocal, or those verbs that denote an action that passes from the agent to some external object, which object returns the action to the agent who then becomes the object, and thus they act reciprocally one towards the other. Consequently the dual and plural numljers are always the subject to this form of the verb; as, bunk ill an bali, 'thou and I strike' each other reciprocally; biiukillan bar a, 'they strike' each one the other reciprocally, or they fight with blows. This constitutes the ' reciprocal ' modification of the verb. 4. Continuative ; as Avhen the state continues, or the action is, was, or will be, continued without interruption ; as, b u n k i 1 - lilin bag, 'I am now continuing in the action of making blows', such as thrashing or beating. This is called the ' con- tinuative ' modification of the verb. 5. Causative (1) by permission, or, with a negative, proliihitive ; as, when we do or do not permit a person to do the act, or another to do the act to him; as, biimmunbilla bon, 'let him strike,' b u m in a r ab unb il 1 a bon, 'cause some one to strike him,' equivalent to, ' let him be struck' ; b u m m a r a b u n- b i y i k 0 r a bon, ' let no one strike him.' 6. Causative (2) by personal agency, denoting the exertion of personal energy to produce the effect upon the object ; as tiir ta unni, 'this is broken'; tiir bng-ga unni also means ' this is broken,' but then personal agency is understood, for the phrase is equivalent to ' some person has broken this,' or ' this is broken by some one.' 7. Causative (3) by instrumental agency, denoting an effect produced by means of some instrument; as, tiir burrea unni, 'this is broken,' sc, by means of something. 8. 'Effective, or those which denote an immediate effect pro- duced by the agent on the object; as, urn a bag unni, 'I made tins'; pital bag, 'I am glad'; pitalma bon bag, ' I made him glad.' D. Neuter verbs, or those w^hich describe the quality, state, or existence of a thing; as, kekal lag unni, 'this is sweet'; tetti lag unni, ' this is dead '; w^onnug ke noa? ' where is he?' unni ta, 'this is it'; moron noa katan, 'he is alive'; unuug noa ye, 'there he is.' In these the particles, lag, k e, t a, k a t a n, ye, are rendered into English by the neuter verb is. 10. Reduplicate, or those which denote an increase of the state, quality, or energy ; a^, p i t a 1 noa, 'he is glad ' ; p i t a 1-p i t a I noa, ' he is very glad '; tetti bara, ' they are dead ' ; tetti- tettei bara,' they are dead-dead,' or ' a great death is among them'; kauwal, 'great'; k au w a 1-k au w a 1, ' very great '; t a u w a, ' eat ' ; t a u w a-t a u w a, ' eat heartily.' 24 AX AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. 11. Pi'lvaiive, or those wliicli denote tlie absence of some pro- perty. Affirmatively, u m a n bag u n n i, 'I make this,' or ' I do this ' ; u p a u bag u n n i, ' I do this,' not directly, but with something or by means of something else ; e.g., ' I write on this paper with a quill' would be up an ba.g unni yirigko wiyelliko, lit., ' I make this quill for-to speak or commuiii- cate ' ; whereas uman bag unni yirig pen kakilliko would mean ' I make this quill for-to* be a pen.' Negatively, when it is implied that the act itself has not taken place, the expres- sion would be u m a pa bag b a, ' had I made ' ; again, if the act existed, but no effect produced by the action were implied, it would be expressed thus, u m a i - g a b a g u n n i, 'I had almost done this.' 12. Imminent, or those which denote a readiness to be or to do; as piriwal katea kun koa bag, ' lest I should be king'; buutea kun koa bon bag, 'lest I should strike him.' 13. Inceptive, or those which describe the state as actually about to exist, or the action as going to put forth its energy at the time spoken of;as, kakilli kolag ball, 'we two are now going to live reciprocally together'; biinkilli kolag bag, 'I am now going to strike.' 14. Iterative, or those which denote a repetition of the state or action; as, mc5ron katea kanun, 'shall live again'; b u n t e a k a n li n, ' will strike again.' 15. Spontaneous, or those which denote an act done of the agent's own accord ; as, tiir kullin unni, 'this is breaking of its own accord ' — not by external violence {cf. No. G) ; p 6 r k u 1 1 e ii n u o a, ' he has just been born,' lit., ' he has dropped himself.' Or THE Moods. There are three moods, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 1, The Indicative, which simply declares a thing ; as, b ii n t a n bag, 'I strike'; unni ta, 'thisisit', the subject; gali noa 'this is he/ the agent. 2. The Suljunctive, which subjoins something to the meaning of the verb, such as a wish, a desire, a purpose ; as, b u w i 1 b a g, ' I wish to strike,' b u u w a b a g, '1 desire to strike,' or ' I want now to strike ' ; t a u a n ba u w a b u n k i 1 1 i k o, ' had I come hither for-to strike.' * This form of the verb, as will afterwards be shown, denotes purpose ; our author expresses that everywhere by for-to. I have allowed that pre- positional form to stand. — Ed. THE GRAMMAR. 25 3. Tlie Imperative, which expresses command ; as, b \\. w a hi, ' do thou strike' ; but in b ii m m n n b i 1 1 a, ' let strike,' the per- son or persons addressed are desired to permit the person nan:ied to strike; in b I'lmm a r ab u nb ill a, 'let strike,' the person addressed is desired ti:^ permit any one to strike the person named ; in b u n t e a- k a, ' strike again,' the person or persons addressed are desired to repeat the action. The imperative form is often used with the first and the third personal pronouns ; in this sense it denotes the desire of the agent to do the act at the time spoken of ; as, b u w a b a n u g, 'I want to strike thee' ; b u w a b i 1 o a, ' he wants to strike thee.' Note. — The equivalent, in many instances, to the English infinitive mood is the construct form of the verb which denotes the purpose of the subject; as, Minarig kounni? What is this for ? b u n k i 1 1 i k o, is the answer, ' for-to strike.' Of the Te^^'ses. 1. The Present, which asserts the j)Tesent existence of the action or being of the verb, at the time in which the assertion is made. The signs of this tense are the following affixed particles, of which the first consonant is varied by the terminations of the respective conjugations of the verbs, viz., -an to the simple verb, -Ian to the reciprocal verb, and -lin to the participle; as, b u n t an , 'strikes' now; b ii n k i 1 1 a n, now 'reciprocally strike one another'; bunkillin, now 'striking'; biinkillilin, now 'continuing in the act of striking.' 2. The Perfect-definite, which asserts the act as having been completed in a past period of the present day ; as, biinkeun, ' has struck,' sc, this morning ; b li n k i 1 1 e u n b a g, 'I have struck myself,' sc, this day. 3. The Perfect-past-aorist, which asserts the act as completed, without reference to any particular period in past time ; as, b II n k u 1 1 a, ' struck.' This is not the participle. 4. The Pluperfect, which asserts the act as completed prior to some other past circumstance. It is formed by the affirmative particle, t a, affixed to the past aorist. and is equivalent only to the English pluperfect ; as, b ii n k u 1 1 a t a, ' had struck.' 5. The Pature- definite, which asserts the act as taking place at a certain definite period, future to the time at which the act is spoken of; as, biinkin, 'shall or will strike,' sc, to-morrow morning. 6. The Future-aorist, which asserts the mere future existence of the act, without reference to any other circumstance, in some indefinite time to come; as, biinnun bag, 'I shall strike'; b II u n u n n o a, 'he will strike.' 26 AN AUSTEALIAK LxVXGUAGE. Of the PARTICirLES. 1. The Present. This lias already been described ; but it may be necessary to menticm, that the present [.^articiple can be used only with reference to present time, not to the past and future, as is the case in English; as, bunkilliu, 'striking' now. 2. The Imperfect -definite., which represents the action as being in ]:)rogress at some definite past period ; as, bunkillikeiin, ' striking,' sc.^ this morning. 3. The Jmperfcct-past-aorist, which represents the action as being in prot^ress at any recent time; as, biinkilliela no a, , he was striking.' 4. The Pasf-present-aorist, which asserts the action as having been engaged in and completed at some former period; as, b \i n- talla bag, wouuai bag ba, 'I struck when I was a child '; w i y a 1 1 a bag w o n n a i-k i 1 o a, w o n n a i bag b a, 'I spoke as a child when I was a child.' 5. The Pluperfect, which indicates the action as having been completed prior to some other past event mentioned; as, biin- killiela t a, ' had struck,' sc, prior to something. 0. The Inceptive-future, which asserts that the action is now about to be pursued; as, biinkilli kolag bag, 'lam going to strike,' or 'I am going a-striking ' ; makoro kolag bug, ' I am going a-fishing.' 7. Fiiture-definil e, which asserts the action as about to be engaged in at some future definite period ; as, b u n k i 1 1 i k i u bag, 'I am going to strike,' &c., to-morrow morning. 8. The Future-aorist, which asserts that the action will exist at some future undefined period ; as, b ii n k i 1 1 i n u n bag, 'I am going to strike,' sc, at some time or other, hereafter. [ PARADIGM OF THE TENSES AND THEIR MEANINGS. The Tenses of the verb and their meanings, as given above, may be concisely expressed thus : — Indicative Mood and Participles. Tense. Meaxixg. 1. Present tense, I am or do — now. 2. Imperfect-dejinite, I was or was doing — this morning. 3. First-aorint, I was or was doing — recently. 4. Second-aorist, I was or did — at some former period. 5. Perfect-dfflnite. I have been or done — this morning. G. Pluperfect, I liad been or done — before some event. 7. Inceptiv'-juture, I am going to or shall, be or do — now. JS. F at ure-df finite, I am going to or shall, be or do — to- morrow morning. 9. Fature-aorist, I am going to or shall, be or do — at some time hereafter. THE GRAMjVIAH. 27 Subjunctive Mood. Our author lias four Aorids in this Mood, namely: — 10a. Past aorusf, 1 had almost been or done. b. Aurisfoftltepasf, Had I been or done. c. „ ,, I wish I had been or done. d. ,, „ net/ativeli/, I have not been or done. The Moods have various mode-forms, thus : — • In the Indicative. Reciprocal mode, We [e.y., strike] one another. liejlexice mode, I [strike] myself. In the Subjunctive. Iteration, mode, I [strike] again. Imminence, Lpst I should [strike]. Contemporary circumstance, "While I or when I [strike]. Implied necjation of actual Ije-') ^ -.^ coming or of actual effect, j Implied necjation ofheing or action. See 10 b., c., d. In the Participles. Continuative mode, Continuing to be or to do. Reflexive mode, Doing to one's self. Reciprocal mode. Doing to owe another. It is clear that the native language recognises three varieties of time and place. The pronouns g a 1 i, gala, galoa {q.v.) show these variations as to place ; and so the principal tenses of the indicative mood, as above, mark time (1) present, (2) recent, (3) remote. English and other languages show the same dis- tinctions in such words as liere, there, yonder. — En.] DECLENSION of the VERBS. [J^p^ The reader will remember that the tense-form of the verb is always constant, and is therefore not affected by its sub- ject. The sub] -ct shown in the declension of the verb is the pronoun bag, 'I,' and the direct object with a transitive verb is bon, 'him'; but any other suitable pronouns may be substituted for these ; for the pronouns that are thus used as subjects, see note on next page; their objective cases are shown in the paradigm of the pronouns. Each tense may thus be declined in full, as in English, by using in succession the pronouns of the first, second, and third persons as the subject of the verb. The shades of meaning conveyed by the tenses are given in the paradigm above, and are applicable to all verbs. The numbers, affixed to the various tenses in the declension of the verbs, correspond with the numbers on that paradigm of tenses, and the T. stands for Tense. — En.] 28 AN AUSTEALIAN LANGUAGE. DECLENSION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. Kakilliko, ' to be,' ' to exist,' ' to remain.' Exam])le of ilie Declension of a Verh in the Present Tense of tlie Indicative Mood. Any Tense may be declined in full in a similar manner. T. 1. Sing. Unnibof bag* ka-tdn, I am here. „ bi „ Thou art here. ,, noa ,, He is here. Dual. „ bali* ,, Wetwo (wzcZzis/re) arehere. ,, balinoa ,, y^et\^o {exclusive) Vive\\evQ. „ bula „ You two are here. „ buloara „ They two are here. Flu. „ geen, „ We are here. ,, nura ,, Tou are here. „ bara „ They are here. Reciprocal. Dual. Unnibo hali* ta-kill-an, AVe two are, o?' live, here to- gether. Plu. „ geen* „ We are, or live, here to- gether. * Or, such other nominative cases of pronouns of the singular, dual, and plural, as the sense may require ; e.g., for the sing., bang, /; b i, fhou ; n o a, Jie ; b o u n t o a, she ; t a, it ; n g a 1 i, this (here) ; n g a 1 a, that (near me) ; n g a 1 o a, that (near you) ; for the dual, bali, thou and I ; bali noa, he and / ; b a 1 i b o u n t o a, she and I ; bula, ye two ; bulo- ara, they two ; for the pht. , n g 6 e n, ur ; n li r a, you ; bar a, they. 'f Lit., this-self-same-place I am Indicative Mood. T. 1. *Bag ka-tan T. 6. *Bag ka-knila-ta 4. „ ka-kiilla 8. „ ka-kiu 5. ,, ka-keuii 9. ,, ka-nuu. Aorist participle — kan ; as, kinta kan bag, ' afraid being I.' [^Throughout the verb 'to be,' both in this Declarative form and in the Permissive, a predicative advei'b, ' unnibo,' or any other suitable word, may be inserted here in all tlie tenses. — Ed.] Pakticiples. T. 1. Bag ka-killin T. 6. Bag ka-killi-ela-ta 2. „ ka-killi-keuii 7. „ ka-killi-kolag 4. ,, ka-takx 8. ., ka-killi-kiu T. 9. Bag ka-killi-nuii.' THE GEAMMAB. 29 Continuative. T. 1. Bag ka-killi-liu T. 3. Bag ka-killi-li-ela. Reflexive. T. 1. Kan bag bo. Reciprocal, T. 1. Bali ka-kill-c4n* T. 6. Bali ka-kill-ala-ta 4. „ ka-kill-ala 7. „ ka-kill-ai-kolag 5. „ ka-kiU-ai-keuii 8. „ ka-kill-ai-kin T. 9. Bali ka-killa-nun. * = 'We two are living together, the one with the other, now.' SuBjuNCTiTE Mood. 1. The constmct verh, denoting purpose. T. 10. Ka-ldlli-ko, 'to be, exist, remain.' Ka-killi-koa, ' to continue to be or live.' Iva-kill-ai-koa, ' to live one witb another.' 2. The construct verb, denotinfj the immediate purpose of the action in the preceding clause ; lohen no clause precedes, the form oftlie verb denotes a wisli. T. 10. Ka-uwil-koa bag, ' that I may or might be,' ' I wish to be.' Iteration. T. 1. Iva-tea-kan bag T. 9. Ka-tea-lia-niin bag Imminence. T. 9, Ka-tea-kun-koa bag. Contemporary circumstance. T. 1. Ka-tc4u bag ba* T. 3. Ka-killi-ela bag ba T. 9. Ka-niin bag ba. * The whole of the indicative mood may be thus declined with ha. Implied negation of actual becoming. T. 10a. Ka-mai ga bag Implied negation of cntitg or being. T. 10b. Ka-pa bag ba T. 10c. Ka-pa-ta bag ba T. lOd. Keawaran* bag ka-pa *ireawaran is a negative. Imperative Mood. Ka-nwa bi, 'be thou.' Ka-kill-ia bi, ' continue thou to be, live, remain.' Ka-uwa bi gintoa bo, 'be thou thyself.' Ka-kilhi bula (dual and plural only), ' be ye two.' Ka-tea-ka bi, ' be thou again.' 30 AX AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. PERMISSIVE EOEM of the VERB ' KAKILLIKO: Ka-mun-billiko * to permit to be, exist, remain.' Indicative Mood. T. 1. Kamiiii-bin bon ba^* T. G. Kamiia-bin-bia-tabon bag 4. „ -bin-bia „ „ 8. „ -bi-kiii „ „ 5, „ -bi-keiia „ ,, 9. „ -bi-uua „ „ * = ' I permit him to be.' Paeticiples. T. 1. Ka-mun-bill-in T. G. Ka-mua-billi-ela-ia 3. „ -billi-ela 7. „ -kolag •1. ,, -bi-ala 8. ,, -kiu 5. „ -billi-keiiu 9. „ -nun. Heciproeal. T. 1. Ka-muQ-bill-aii f T. G. Ki-mun-bill-ala-ta f ■i. „ -bill-ala ,, 7. „ -bill-ai-kolag ,, 5. „ -bill-ai-keun ,, S. ., -bill-ai-kin ,, T. 9. Ka-mua-billa-nun billun bag. t Here insert in eaeh tenee ' bulun bang.' or any other suitable worrls, as subject and personal object. T. 1. is equivalent to ' I permit them to live to- gether.' SuBJUNCTiTE Mood. 1. To exj)ress piDyose. T. 10. Ka-mua-bilbl-ko, 'to permit to be'. ,, -billa-koa, ' to permit to be together, the one with the other'. 2. To express immediate purpose. T. 10. Iva-mua-bin-uwil-koa, 'that ... may or might permit to be together.' Iteraf/'on. T. 1. Ka-mua-bea-kcin bou bag T.d. Ka-muu-bea-ka-nua bon bag* * = ' I shall again permit hun to be.' Imminence. T. 9. Ka-miia-bea-kua-koa biloa,t 'lest he permit thee to be.' Contemporary circumstance. T. 1. I\a-mu!i-bin boo bag ba T. 3. Ka-mun-billi-ehabiuugt ba T. 9. Ka-mim-bi-niia bitiaf ba t For banung, biloa, bitia, binung, see paradigm of Pronouns. THE GHAMMAE. 31 Implied negation of actual hecomiiig. T. 10 a. Ka-mai-ga bdn bag Implied negation of entity or heing. T. 10 b. Ka-muu-bi-pabag ba T. 10 c. Ka-mun-bi-pa-ta bag ba T. 10 d. Iveawaniu* bag muu-bi-pa * Keawaran is a negative. Imperatite Mood. Ka-mim-billa * 'permit * to ' Ka-mua-bill-a „ 'permit „ self to continue to ' • • . Ka-miia-bea-ka „ 'permit ,, again to ' . , . , * Insert here the pronoun in the Ace. DECLENSION OF TRANSITIVE VERBS. DECLENSION OF the VERB ' TO STRIKE: Bun-killi-ko, ' to strike '. EXAMPLES OF TSE DECLENSION OF THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. T. 1. Sing., Buutan bag.f Dual, Buutan bali.f Phi., Buntan gaeu.f Conjoined Dual, Buutan banug.f t Or any other suitable pronoun as a subject. The personal object must bo placed alter the verb, but the neuter object after the subject. Indicatiye Mood. T. 1. Buntc4n boa bag* T. 6. Bun-kulla-ta bdn bag 4. Bun-killa „ „ 8. ,, -kin bdn bag 5. „ -keua „ „ 9. „ -nun „ „ Paeticiples. T. 1. Bun-killin bdu bag T. 6. Bun-killi-ela-ta bdn bag 2. „ -killi-keun „ „ 7. „ „ -kolag „ „ 3. „ -killi-ela ,, „ 8. „ „ -kin „ „ 4. „ -tala „ „ 9. „ „ -nun „ „ Gontimiatite. T. 1. Bun-killi-linbdnbag* T. 3. Bun-killi-li-ela bdn bag * = ' I am striking with nnany blows, now.' Mrjlexive. T. 5. Bun-kill-eiia bag, ' 1 have struck myself.' 32 AN AUSTEALIAN LANGUAGE. 12eci])rocal. T. 1. Bim-killan bali T. 6. Bun-kill-ala-ta bali 4. „ -kill-ala „ 7. „ -kill-ai-kolag „ 5, „ -kill-ai-kt'-un ,, 8. „ -kill-ai-kin „ T. 9. Bun-killa-nun bali SUEJUNCTITE MOOB. 1. To express imrpose. T. 10. Bim-killi-ko, ' to strike,' ' for the purpose of striking.' Bim-killi-koa, 'to strike continually,' 'to beat,' 'to thrasli.' Buri-kni-ai-koa, ' to strike eaeli one the other,' ' to fight.' 2. To express immediate purpose. T. 10. Buu-wil or bu-wil-koa bon bag, ' that I might strike him.' 3. Iteration. T. 1. Bun-tea-kan bdn bag T. 9. Biin-tea-ka-niin bag 4. Imminence. T. 9. Biin-tea-kiin-koa bdn bag 5. Contemporary circumstance. T. 1. Biin-tciu bdn bag ba T. 3. Biin-killi-ela bdn noa ba T. 9. Bun-nun bdn bag ba 6. Implied necjation of actual effect. T. 10a. Bum-mai ga bdn bag 7. Implied negation of action or entity. T. 10b. Bum-pa bdn bag ba T. 10c. Bum-pa-ta bdn bag ba T. lOd. Xeawaran bdn bag biim-pa Impeeatite Mood. Bii-wa bi, ' strike thou'; buwa-buwa bi, ' continue thou to stidke. Bim-killa bula, ' strike on, ye two, the one with the other.' Bun-kill-ia, ' strike on,' 'be striking self.' Bun-tea-ka bi, ' strike again ' ; biin-kea, ' strike instantly.' Note. — This imperative, if written in full, with a subject and an object, would be : — Bu-wa bi (or bula, or nura) tia ; instead of tia, any other object maybe used ; such as, nnni, 'this,' unnoa, ' that,' and the accusative cases of all the pronouns. Continuative. Bun-killi-lia bi (bula, nura) tia, &c., as above. Hcflexive. Emphatic. Reciprocal. Biin-kill-ia bi kotti, Bu-wa bi gintoa, Bun-killa bula ' strike thou thine own ' strike thou thyself.' ' strike ye two, the one the self.' other.' THE GKAMMAR. 33 PERMISSIVE FORM of the YERB ' TO STRIKE: Bum-mara-bun-billiko ' to permit (some other) to strike.' EXAMPLE OF THE DECLENSION OF THE TENSES. 1. Form to he used for the Active Voice. Indicative Mood. T. 1. Sing. Buin-muu-bm bif tia,t ' thou permittest me to strike,' or ' I am permitted to strike.' Imperative Mood. 1. Present ; 2. Continuative ; 8. Bejlexive ; 4. Emphatic; 5. Reciprocal. 1. Bum-muii-billa bit tia,t 'permit tbou me to strike,' or ' let me strike.' 'permit me to continue in striking.' ' permit thyself to strike thine own self.' ' do thou thyself permit him to strike.' ' permit ye two, the one the other, to strike one another.' 2. )5 -billi-lia bi tia 3. !5 -bill-la bi kotti. 4. )) -billa bi gintoa bou 5. 55 -billa bula. 2. Form to be used for the Fassive Voice. IifDicATivE Mood. 1. Present ; 2. Continuative; ^.Reflexive ; 4i. Reciprocal. 1. Bum-mara-bua-bin bit tia,t 'thou permittest (any one) to strike me,' or ' I am permitted to be struck.' 2. „ bua-billi-lia, ' continue thou to permit (any one) to be struck.' 3. „ biin-bill-ia tia 'I myself pennit myself to gatoa bo, be struck.' 4. „ bun-billa bulun, 'permit, the one the other, to be struck.' t Any other suitable pronouns may be placed here. Si AX AI'STEALIAX LANGUAGE. Declension of this Verb, wlien it is used so as to have t]ie meaning of a passive voice. TxT)TCATivE Mood. T. 1. Bum-mara-biin-ljinb(')ii bng 4. Bum-mara-bun-biabonbag T. 9. Bum-mara-buu-bi-iiuu bdn bag Pahticiples. T. 1. Bum-mara-bun-bill-in T. 4. Bum-raara-buQ-bi-ala T. 9. Bum-mara-biia-billl-nun lieciprocal. T. 1. Biim-mara-Tiun-billaii T. 4. Bum-Tnara-bun-bill-ala T. 9. Bi'im-mara-bun-billa-nun ScBjL'xcTivE Mood. T. 10. Bura-mara-bim-billi-ko, 'to permit (somebody) to be .struck.' -biiu-bill-ai-koa, 'to permit the one to be struck by the other.' -buu-bi-uwil-koa, ' tbat...raigbt permit... to be struck.' -bun-bia-ktiii-koa, 'lest (somebody) should be permitted to be struck.' -biia-bi-iuin bon bag ba, ' nhen I permit (any person) to be struck.' -biiQ-bai-gT, bou bag, ' I had almost permitted him to be struck.' -buu-bi-pa bun bag ba, ' had I permitted him to be struck.' Imper.vtite Mood. Bum-mara-bun-billa bi tia. DECLEXSIOX of the TEEB ' TO 2IAKE: Umulliko, *todo,' personally, ' to make/ ' to create.' IxDrcATiTE Mood. T. 1. ITman bag unni T. (5. TJma-ta bag unni 4. Uma „ 8. Uma-kin „ 5. Uma-keiin „ 9. Unza-niiu ,, the grammar, 35 Paeticiple?. T. 1. Umull-in bag lumi T. 4. Umala bag nnni 2. Uniulli-ktuii ., G. lTuiul!i-ela-ta „ 3. Umulli-ela „ 7. Umulli-kolag ,, T. 9. Umulli-nua bag unni Continuative. T. 1. Umulli-lla bag unni T. 3. Umulli-li-ela bag unni Reflexive. T. 5. Umull-eLia bag unni Reciprocal. T. 1. Umull-an bali unni T. G. Umull-ala-ta bali unni 4. Umull-ala „ ,, 7. Umull-ai-kolag „ „ 5. Umull-ai-keun „ ,, 8. Ilmull-ai-kin „ ,, T. 9. Umulla-nim bali unni Su33JuxcTiTE Mood. 1. To express purpose. T. 10. TTmulli-ko, 'to do, make, create.' Umulli-koa, 'to continue to do.' TJmull-ai-koa, ' to do reciprocally.' 2. To express immediate jyurpose. T. 10. TJma-uwil-koa bag unni, 'that I may or miglit make this.' Iteration. T. 1. Umea kan bag unni T. 9. Umea ka-nun bag unni Imminence. T. 9. Umea kiin koa bag unni Contemporary circiim stance. T. 1. Uman bag ba uuni T. 3. Umulli-ela bag ba unni T. 9. Uma-nun noa bag unni Implied negation of actual effect. T. 10a. Umai-gi bag unni Implied negation of action or entity. T. 10b. Uma-pa bag unni T. 10c. Uma-pa-ta bag unni T. lOd. Keawaran bag uma-pa unni 3g an atjstralian language. Imperatite Mood. TJmulla bi, ' make thou.' Umau-umulla bi, (reduplication) ' make tliou diligently.' Umulla bula, 'make ye two' (reciprocally). Umull-ia bi, ' make thou thyself (reflexive). Umea-ka, ' make again' ; uma-kea, ' make instantly.' TTma-buu-billa bon unni, ' permit him to make this.' Umara-bun-billa unni, 'permit this to be made.' DECLENSIOIS' of the VERB 'TO DO; 'TO PERFORM: UpuUiko ' to do,' ' to perform,' ' to use in action.' Indicatiye Mood. T. 1. Upan bag gali ko T. 4. Upa bag gali ko T. 9. Upa-nun bag gali ko. Participles. T. 1. Upullin bag gali ko T. 4. Upala bag gali ko 3. Upulli-ela „ „ „ 7. Upulli-kolag „ „ „ T. 9. Upulli-nun bag gali ko Gontinuative. T. 1. Upulli-lin bag gali ko T. 3. Upulli-li-ela bag gali ko Reflexive. T. 5. Upull-eua bag gali ko Reciprocal. T. 1 . TJpull-an ball gali ko Subjunctive Mood. T. 10. TJpulli-ko, ' to do, to use in action.' TJpulli-koa, 'to continue to do,' as, ' to work with.' Upan-uwil-koa bag, ' that I might do.' Upea-kun-koa bag, 'lest I should do.' Upa-nun bi ba, ' when thou doest,' or ' if thou do.' Upai-ga bag, ' I had almost done.' Upa-pa bag ba, ' had I done,' or ' if I had done.' Imperative Mood. Upulla, ' do,' ' use ' in action. THE GEAMMAE. 37 DECLENSION op the VERB 'TO BREAK' by personal agency. Tiir-bung-giilliko, ' to break ' by personal agency, not by instrumental means. , Indicative Mood. T. 1. Tiir-bug-gan bagunni T. 4. Tiir-bug-ga bag unni T. 9. Tiu'-bug-ga-nun bagunni Paeticipi-es. T. 1. Tiir-bug-gullin bag t T. 4. Tiir-biig-galla bag f 3. Tiir-bug-gulli-ela „ ., 7. Tiir-bug-gulli-kolag „ „ T, 9. Tiir-bug-gulli-nuu bag unni t Here insert ' unni ' or any other neuter object. Continuative. T. 1. Tiir-bug-gulli-lln bag T. 3. Tiir-bug-gulli-li-ela bag f Reflexive. T. .5. Tiir-bug-gull-eun bag unni Reciprocal. T. 1. Tiir-bug-gull-an bali unni Subjunctive Mood. T. 10. Tiir-bug-gulli-ko, 'to break' (something). Tiir-bug-ga-uwil-koa, 'that ... may or might break.' Tiir-bug-gea-l<un-koa, 'lest ... should break.' Tiir-bug-ga-nua bag ba, ' when I break,' or 'if I break.' Tiir-bug-gai-ga bag, 'I had almost broken.' Tiir-biig-ga-pa bag ba, ' had I broken,' or ' if I had broken.' DECLENSION" of the VERB ' TO BREAIC by instrumental agency. Tiirburrilliko, ' to break,' by instrumental, not by personal, agency. Indicative Mood. T. 1. TJir-bur-rin bag unni T. 4. Tiir-bur-rea bag unni T. 9. Tiir-bur-ri-nun bag unni 38 an austr.vliax language, Patjticiples. T. 1. Tiir-bur-rill-111 bag f T. 4. Tiir-bur-rala bag f 3. „ -bur-rilli-ela ,, „ 7. Tiir-bur-rilli-kolag „ „ T. 9. Tiir-bur-rilli-nua bag unni Continuative. T. 1. Tlir-bur-rilli-lln bag t T. 3. Tilr-biir-rilli-li-ela bag f t Here insert ' uuni ' or any otlier neuj:er object. Reflexive. T. 2. Tiir-bur-ri!l-eun bag unni Heciprocal. T. 1. Tiir-bur-rill-rm bali unni SuBJUXCTiYE Mood. T. 10. Tiir-bur-ril]i-ko, 'to break' by means of .some instrument. Tiir-burr-uwil-koa, ' that... may or might break.' Tiir-bur-rea-kiin-koa, 'lest ... should break.' Tiir-bur-ri-nua bag ba, ' when I break', or 'if I break.' Tiir-bur-ri-pabag ba, ' had I broken', or 'if I had broken.' DECLENSION OF tue VEEB 'TO SPEAK: 'TO TELL: Wiyelliko, * to speak, say, talk, converse, communicate.' Indicative Mood. T. 1. Wiyan boa bag* T. G. Wiya-ta bon bag 4. Wiya „ ,, 8. AViya-kin ,, „ 5. Wiya-kcUQ „ ,, 9. "\Viya-nun „ „ *- 'I tell him.' Participles. T. 1. Wiyellin bon bag T. G. Wiyelli-ela-ta bon bag 2. Wivelli-kc'un „ „ 7. Wivelli-kolag „ „ 3. Wiyelli-ela „ - „ 8. AViyelli-kin 4. AViyala ,, ,, 9. Wiyelli-nun „ „ Coniiiniaiivc. T. 1. Wiyelli-lia T. 3. Wiyelli-li-ela Reflexive. T. 5. Wiyel-lciia bag= 'I talked to myself.' THE GliAMMAE. 39 Heciprocal. T. 1. AYivell-an bara* T. G. Wiyell-ala-ta bara 4. Wiyell-ala „ 7. WiVell-ai-kolag „ 5. Wiyell-ai-kt'im ,, 8. AVi}ell-ai-kin „ T. 9. AViyel]a-nuii bara * =: ' They say to one another.' 8cBJUNCTiTE Mood. 1. To express purpose. T. 10. Wiyelli-ko, ' to tell, say.' Wiyelli-koa, ' to continue to tell or preach.' AViyell-ai-koa (reciprocal), ' to talk, the one with the other.' 2. To express immediate pui^pose. T. 10. "Wiyan-uwil-koa bag Iteration, T. 1. AViyea kan bag T. 9. "Wiyea ka-niin beg Immineitce. T. 10. Wija-a kun-koa brg Contemporary circumstance. T, 1. AViyan noa ba T. 3. Wiyelll-ela noa ba T. 9. Wiya-nua noa ba Im])lied negation of actual effect. T. lUa. Wiyai-ga bdn bag Implied negation of action or entity,. T. 10b. "\Yiya-pa bon bag ba T. 10c. Wiya-pa-ta bdn bag T. lOd. Keawarant bdn bag wiya-pa t Keawaran is the negative. Imperatiye Mood. Wiya, 'say, will you?' (interrogative). "VYiyella, ' speak, tell.' "Wiya-wiyella (reduplication), 'speak! be quick !' Wiyella, 'speak' reciprocally. Wiyell-ia, 'continue to ask.' Wiya-wiyall-ia, ' a^k urgently.' Wiyea-ka, ' tell ai^jaiu,' ' repeat.' Wiya-kt'a, 'speak presently.' Wiya-biia-billabdn, ' permit him to speak.' 40 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. DECLENSION OF INTRANSITIVE VERBS. DECLENSION of the VEEB ' TO GO.' UwoUiko, 'to go, come, walk, tend, move.' Indicative Mood. T. 1. Uwan bag T. 4. Uwa bag T. 9. Uwa-nun bag Participle. T. 1. Uwoll-in bag T. 4. Uwala bag 3. Uwolli-ela bag 9. Uwolli-nun bag Contlnuative. T. 1. Uwolli-lln bag T. 3. Uwolli-li-ela bag Reflexive. T. 5. Uwoll-eun bag Reciprocal. T. 1. Uwoll-cin bara T. 4. UwoU-ala bara T. 9, Uwolli-nua bara Subjunctive Mood. T. 10. Uwolli-ko, ' to come,' ' to go away' (according to the meaning of the adverb with it). TJwa-uwil-koa, ' that I may or might come or go.' Uwea-kun-koa, 'lest . . should come or go.' Uwa-niin bag ba, ' when I go or come.' Uwai-ga bag ba, 'I had almost come or gone.' Uwa-pa bag ba, ' had I come or gone.' Imperative Mood. Tanan uwolla, ' come hither.' Waita uwolla, ' go away.' Wolla-wolla, ' come or go quickly.' Uwolla, 'depart each.' Uwoll-ia, 'come or go' (of self). TJwea-ka, ' come or go.' Uwa-bun-billa, ' permit to come or go.' Uwa-kea, ' come or go,' sc, in the morning. THE GEAMMAE. 41 DECLENSION of the YEEB ' TO BEIIAK: TiirkuUiko, ' to break' spontaneously. Paeiiciples. Tiir ran imni, 'this is broken' spontaneously. T. 1. Tiir-kull-in unni T. 5. Tiir-kull-eun unni 2. „ -kulli-keun unni 6. „ -kulli-ela-ta unni. 3. „ -kulli-ela unni 7. „ -kulli-kolag unni 4. „ -kull-ala unni 8. ,, -kulli-kin unni T. 9. Tiir-kulli-niiu unni Gontinuatlve. T. 1. Tiir-kulli-lin unni T. 3. Tiir-kulli-li-ela unni Subjunctive Mood. T. 10. Tiir-kulli-ko, ' to break of its own accord.' Tiir-kulli-koa unni, 'that this may or might break.' Tiir-kull-ea-ktin-koa, 'lest . . . should break.' Tiir-kulli-niin unnibo, 'when or if this breaks.' Tiir-ka-ga-leiin unni, 'this had almost broken.' Tiir-kuUi-ba-pa unni, 'had this broken.' Imperative Mood. Tiir-kull-ia unni, ' I wish this to break of itself.' Tiir-kull-ea-ka unni, 'I wish this to break of itself again.' Kamunbilla unni tiir-kulli-koa, ' let this break spontaneously. DECLENSION op the VEEB, ' TO DIE: Tetti buUiko, ' to be in the act of dying*,' to die'. Indicative Mood. T. 1. Tetti ban noa T. G. Tetti ba-ta noa 4. „ ba noa 8. „ ba-kin noa 5. ,, ba-keiin noa 9. ,, ba-niin noa Paeticiples. T. 1. Tetti bullin noa T. 4. Tetti bala noa 2. „ bulli-keun noa 7. „ bulli-kin noa 3, „ bulli.ela noa 9. „ bulli-niin noa Continnative. T. 1. Tetti bulli-lin noa T. 3. Tetti buUi-li-ehajioa (faKIVBRSITl 42 AN AUSTEA-LIAK LAyOTJAGE. SuBJUNCTiTE Mood. T. 10. Tetti bulli-ko, ' to die.' Tetti ba-uwil-koa noa, 'in order that he mii^ht die.' Tetti bea-kiiu-koa noa, 'lest he should die.' Tetti 1 a-niiu noa ba, 'when he dies,' 'if he should die. Tetti bai-ga noa, ' he had almost died.' Tetti ba-pa noa, 'had he died,' 'if he had died.' Imperative Mood. Tetti ba-uwa, 'proceed to die' (optatively). Tetti buLi-billa bon, ' permitjiim to die.' Tetti bea-ka, ' die again.' PARTICLES used instead of the VERB *T0 BE.' 1. The verb, with a substantive attribute : t a, 'i t is' ; t a r a r a n, *it is not.' 2. The verb, ivith an adjective attribute: lag, 'it is'; kora lag, 'it is not.' 8. The verb, ivith a personal attribute: (1) bo, is 'self; (2) g a I i, ' this ' is the agent who. JElxampl.es of 1,2, and 3 : — Unnibo bag, 'this is I' (the subject of the verb); gatoa bo unni, 'this is I myself (the personal agent), who' . . ; nnni ta, 'this is' (the subject); unnibo t a, ' this is itself ' (the subject) ; gali noa w i y a, ' this is he who spoke.' P u 1 1 i , ' salt ' (a subsf.) ; p u 1 1 i t a, ' it is salt ' (a subsf.) ; p u 1 1 i lag. ' it is salt ' (an adj.) ; pulli kora lag, ' it is not salt ' (an adj.) ;tarar an* pulli korien, ' it is not salt ' (a subsf.) * There are two negatives here, as usual, but the former of them may be omitted. 4. The verb, icith an attribute of manner : yanti, 'it is so'; yantibo ta, ' it is so itself ; imperative: yanoa, 'let be as it is' ; y a-ai (used negatively), 'let it not be so.' Example : — T a a i, b u n k i y i k o r a , ' let it not be so, strike not.' 5. The verb, expressing tendency: wal, 'is,' 'shall,' 'will* (denoting tendency of the mind or thing); imperative : wiya, * say,' ' declare what you wish.' Examples : — Tiir wal unni, 'this is broken'; wiya, unni mur- r a r ag , ^ say, is this good ? ' THE GHAMMAR. 43 6. The verb, expressinrj heinj or existence: ke, 'be,' * is.' Example : — • M i u a r i g k e u u n i ? ' wliat (tliiug) is this ? ' [XoTE. — I am not sure that all these particles are used as substitutes for the verb ' to be.' — Ed.] THE VERB used NEGATIVELY. Ixdicjltive Mood. Affirmatively. Negatively. T. 1. Kauwci, bdn-tauboQ bag. Keawarau, bou bag bun korien. ' Yps, I strike him.' ' No, I striVe him not.' 5. Bun-keuQ bou bag. Keawai, bcni bag bun-ki-pa. ' I have struck him.' ' No, I have not stniok him.' 6. Biin-kulla bun bag. Keawaran, bon bag biim-pa. ' I had struck him.' ' No, I had not struck him.' 8. Bun-kin bdn bag. Keawai, bon bag bun-kin. ' I shall strike him.' ' No, I shall not strike him.' 9. Biin-nuu walbonbag. Ivea\vai,wal bon bag bun korien. ' I shall strike him.' ' No, I shall not strike him.' Pabticiples, T. 1. Bun-kill-in bdn bag. Keawaran, bdn bag biin-killi korien. • I am striking him.' ' No, I am not striking him.' 3. Biin-killi-ela bdn bag. Keawaran,bdnbagbun-killikorakal. ' I was striking him.' ' No, I was not going to strike him.' 9. Bun-killi-niin bdn bag. Keawai, bdn hag biin-killi kora ke. ' I am going to strike him.' ' No, I am not going to strike him.' Impebatite Mood. Mandatory — Eiiwa bdn, 'strike him.' Ma, biiwa b<)n, ' do, strike him.' Tanoa, biin-ki 3ukora bdn, ' let be, strike him not.' Biin-kill;!, 'strike on,' 'continue to strike.' Tanoa, bun-killa-bau kora, ' let be, cease striking.' Bum-mara-biin-billa bdn, 'permit him to be struck.' Yari, bdn bi bum-mara-biin-bi yikora, 'hold! let him Jiot be struck.' Entreaty — Biim-mun-billa-bdn, 'permit him to strike.' Yanoa, biim-mun-bi yikora bdn, ' let be, permit him not to strike.' Interrogative — Minarig-tin binug bun-kulla? 'why did'st thou strike him?' Kora koa binug bum-pa ? ' why hast thou not struck him ?' 44 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAdE. Idioms Wivvi, ' be quiet,' 'do not what you tend to do.' Yaai, 'refrain,' ' do not,' ' cease acting,' 'hold'! ' let not.' Tari, yanoa, 'let be,' ' let alone,' ' do not.' ADVERBS. The use of the word determines whether it should be called a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A word used with the particle of agency would be considered a noun ; but the same word, if attached to a noun, would be an adjective ; used with a verb, it would be an adverb; as, porrol, 'heavy'; pdrrdl ta unni, ' this is heavy ' ; porrol noa wiytln, 'he speaks heavily.' Adverbs arc classed in the following manner : — 1. Of Numler. Wakal bo ta, ' once only.' Buloara bo ta, ' twice only.' JS'gdro bo ta, ' thrice only.' 2. Of Order. Bonen, 'the first to be done,' Kurri-kurri, 'the beginning, the Grdnka, 'the first,' or 'before.' first.' Willug, 'the last,' or 'behind.' 3. Of Place. Unti, 'here.' Bara-kolag, 'downtvards.' Unnug, 'there.' Muriug-kolag, 'forwards.' Wonnug? 'where?' AVillug-koIag, 'backwards.' Wonta-kolag, 'Avhither' ? "Wonta-birug? 'whence? from Unti-kolag, 'hither.' what place?' Untoa-kolag, 'thither.' TJnta-birug, 'thence.' [time. Wokka-kolag, ' upwards.' Unti-birug, ' hence'; place or 4. Of Time. Ba, 'when ; at the time that' ; Keawai-wal, 'never, not at any gai-ya, 'then,' must always time'; ' no, never.' be after it. Kum-ba, 'yesterday' (when the Bug-gai, 'this present period, verb is in a past tense); ' to- now, to-day' ; 'the time now niorrow' (when used with a passing.' verb in the future tense). Bug-gai-kal, 'of the present Ki'im-ba ken ta, ' the day after period; fresh, new, recently.' to-morrow.' Gai-ya, 'then, at that time' ; Mura-ai, ' sometimes.' it is governed by the par- Murrin-murrin, 'often, repeat- tide ba. edly, frequently.' Kabo, 'presently.' Taga, 'before, prior to.' Kabo ka ta, ' presently it is,' Tanoa-nug bo, 'soon.' for 'not yet,' Toan-ta, 'afterwards.' THE GEAMMAS. 45 Unnug bo, 'Tiitlierto.' Takoun-ta ? 'at what time? "VVakal-wakal, ' ouce-once,' — an when ?' idiomjfor' seldom.' Tanti-kat-ai, 'hence forward,' Taki-ta, 'now'; at the time 'forever'; ZiV., 'thus always.' spoken of. Yuki-ta, 'afterwards.' Taki-ta bo, 'instantly'; at the Yuraki, 'long since, formerly, selfsame moment spoken of. long ago.' Note. — Iteration is expressed by a particular form of the verb ; as, Buntt^a-kanun, ' will strike again. ' 5. Of Quantity. Butti, 'more' ; meaniDg, 'con- Minnan ? 'what quantity? how tinue the action.' much? how many?' Kauwal-lag, ' largely, much, Tantoa, 'enoiigh, sufficiently.' abundantly.' Warea-lag, 'little, sparingly.' Kirun, ' all.' Winta, ' a part, a portion.' 6. Of Q^uality or Manner. Kara, 'slowly, deliberately.' Por-rdl, ' heavily' ; cf. por-rol. Kurra-kai, 'quickly' ; also equi- AYir-wir, 'cheerfully, lightly' ; valent to the phrase 'make cf. wir, as a verb, 'to fly like haste.' the down of a bird.' "\Yogkal-lag, 'foolishly ' ; cf. wogkal, 'deaf, stupid, foolish.' 7. Of Bovht. Mirka, 'perhaps.' Mirka-ta,' perhaps so, possibly.' 8, Of Affirmation. E-c, 'yes.' Yanti bo ta, 'yes, just as it is.' Kau-wa, 'yea.' Yuna bo ta, 'verily, certainly, Tokol bo ta, 'truly, in truth really'; Jit., 'there it is itself ' ; cf. tokol, 'straight.' itself.' 9. Of Negation. Kea-wai, ' nay.' Ta-raran, ' it is not,' sc, the Kea-wa-ran, 'no.' thing affirmed. Yikora, kora, korien, ' no, not.' 10. Of Interrofjation. Koi'a-koa ? 'why not?' Yako-ai ? 'how?' meaning ' in Minarig-tin ? 'why? where- what manner?' answer, yan- fore?' ti, 'thus.' Wouuen ? 'how? which way?' answer, gia-kai, 'this way.' XoTE. — Other modifications will be better miderstood from the Illustra- tive sentences. 46 AN AUSIEALIAX LAXGUACE. PREPOSITIONS. Ba, 'of — denoting possession, Katoa, 'with, in company when used with the personal with,' — not instrumental. pronouns. Ko, -lo, -o, -ro, -to, — particles Birug, 'of, out of, from'; op- denoting agency or instru- posed to ko-lag. mentahty.* Ka, ' in,' or 'at' such a period; Ko-ba, 'of — the same as ' ba,' as, tarai-ta yellanna-ka, ' in but used only with nouns. another moon.' Ko-lag, ' to, towards, tendency Ka-ba, 'in, on, at' — a place; as, towards,' — opposed to birug. Sydney-ka-ba, 'at Sydaey.' Murrarig, 'into.' Kai, — the same meaning as tin ; Murrug, 'within.' onl}^ this is used to personal Tin, ' from, on account of, for, pronouns, but ' tin ' goes because of, in consequence with nouns. of.' Kal, 'part of; as, unti-kal, AYarrai, 'outside, without,' — 'of this, part of this, hereof.' opposed to 'within.' * Expressed by xcith, hy, for, Ijut only when instrumental. CONJUNCTIOITS, The idiom of the language is such, that sentences connect with sentences without the aid of conjunctions, the subjunctive mood answering all these purposes. The dual number also does away with the necessity of using connectives to unite two expressions. The following are the principal conjunctions, viz., gatun, 'and'; k nil a, 'because, for '; gali-tin, ' therefore, on account of this.' But the particles ' lest,' ' unless,' ' that,' and the disjunc- tives, are expressed by modifications of the verb in the subjunctive mood, as will be shown in the Illustrative sentences. INTEEJECTIONS. Note. — The following are used under the circumstances mentioned. A, ' hearken ! lo ! behold!' Ivatio-katia,of pain, anguish. Ela-beara, of wonder, surprise, Wau, ' attention ! ' a call to astonishment. attend. Ginoa, of salutation at parting; Wi-wi, of aversion. as, 'farewell.' Tapallun, of sorrow ; 'alas!' THE VOCABrLAET. 4H CHAPTER IV. YOCABULAET. (1) MYTHOLOGY. G a 1: 6 n ; k li r i m a ; on.* bones put tlirougli tlie septum of the nose for ornament. Gorro; pummeri; y o n e i, m., varieties of grass-tree. To form the native spears, pieces of the flower-stalks of this are cemented together at the ends by a resinous substance which exudes from the root ; they are made from eight to twelve feet long ; a piece of hard w^ood forms the last joint, on which is cemented a splinter of pointed bone, a*? a barb. A deadly ■weapon this is ; thrown by means of a lever nearly four feet long, cf. ' w 0 m m a r a ', which is held in the hand, and on it the poisoned spear. Koin, Tippakal, Porrag are names of an imaginary male being, who has now, and has always had, the appearance of a black ; he resides in thick brushes or jungles ; he is seen occas- ionally by day, but mostly at night. In general, he precedes; the coming of the natives from distant parts, when they assemble to celebrate certain of their ceremonies, as the knocking out of tooth in the mystic ring, or wdien they are performing some dance. He appears painted with pipe-clay, and carries a fire- stick in his hand; but generally it is the doctors, a kind of magicians, who alone perceive him, and to whom he says, ' Feai^ not; come and talk.' At other times he comes when the blacks are asleep, and takes them up, as an eagle his prey, and carries: them away for a time. The shout of the surrounding party often makes him drop his burden; otherwise, he conveys them to his fire-place in the bush, where, close to the fire, he deposits his load. The person carried off tries to cry out, but cannot, feeling almost choked ; at daylight Koin disappears, and the black finds himself conveyed safely to his own fire-side. Eoyorowen, the name of another imaginary being, whose trill in the bush frequently alarms the blacks in the night. AVhen he overtakes a native, he commands him to exchange cudgels, giving his own which is extremely large, and desiring the black to take a first blow at his head, which he holds down for that purposef ; after this he smites and kills the person with one blow, skewers him with the cudgel, carries him off, roasts, and then eats him. * The m, tliroughout, stands for meaning. f This is a coiumoa mode of duelUng among the blacks. — Ed, 48 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. Kurriwilbcln, the name of liis wife ; she has a long horn on each shoulder, growing upwards, with which she pierces the aborigines, and then shakes herself until they are impaled on her shoulders, when she carries them to a deep valley, roasts, and eats her victims. She does not kill the women, for they are always taken by her husband for himself. Taho has, by some means, come to be used by the blacks as a name for this being. M I'l r r am ai, m., the name of a round ball, about the size of a cricket-ball, which the aborigine.? carry in a small net sus- pended from their girdles of opossum yarn. The women are not allowed to see the internal part of the ball. It is used as a talisman against sickness, and it is sent from tribe to tribe for hundreds of miles, on the sea-coast and in the interior. One is now here from Moreton Bay, the interior of which a black showed me privately in my study, betraying consider- able anxiety lest any female should see the contents. After he had unrolled many yards of woollen cord, made from the fur of the opossum, the contents proved to be a quartz-like substance of the size of a pigeon's egg. He allowed me to break it and retain a part. It is transparent, like white sugar-candy. The natives swallow any small crystalline particles that crumble off, as a preventive of sickness. It scratches glass, and does not effervesce with acids. From another specimen, the stone appears to be agate, of a milky hue, semi-pellucid, and it strikes fire. The vein from which it appears to have been broken off is one and a quarter inch thick. A third specimen contained a portion of carnelian pai"tially crystallised, a fragment of chalcedony, and a fragment of a crystal of white quartz. M u r r 0 k u n, m., the name of a mysterious magical bone, which is obtained by the k a r a k a 1 s, q.v. Three of these sleep on the grave of a recently interred corpse ; in the night, during their sleep, the dead person inserts a mysterious bone into each thigh of the three ' doctors,' who feel the puncture not more severe than that of the sting of an ant. The bones remain in the flesh of the doctors, without any inconvenience to them, until they wish to kill any person, when by magical power, it is said and believed, they destroy their ill-fated victim, causing the mysterious bone to enter into his body, and so occasion death. Nauwai, m., a canoe; }) u p a, ?»., bark, a canoe. The canoes are made of one sheet of bark, taken whole from the tree and softened with fire, and then tied up in a folded point at each end. A quantity of earth forms a hearth, on which the natives' roast their bait and fish, when fishing. THE YOCABULAET. 49 N u g - g II n, m., a song. There are poets among tlie tribes, wlio compose songs ; these are sung and danced to by their own tribe in the firsft place, after which other tribes learn the song and dance; and so the thing itinerates from tribe to tribe throughout the country, until, from change of dialect, the very words are not understood correctly by distant blacks. P 6 r 0 b u g, the name of a mystic ring, in which certain cere- monies of initiation are performed ; from p 6 r, ' to drop down, to be born.' Puntimai, ;«., a messenger, an ambassador. These men are generally decorated with the down of the swan or of the hawk on their heads, when on an embassy. They arrange the time, place, and manner of preparations for a battle or for the punishing of a supposed offender or real aggressor. They bring intelligence of the movements of hostile tribes, or the last new song and dance (cf. n u g - g u n) . When they travel at night, a fire-stick is always carried by thera as a protection against the powers of darkness, the evil spirits, of which they are in continual dread. Puttikan, another imaginary being, like a horse, having a large mane and a tail sharp like a cutlass ; whenever he meets the blacks, they go towards him and draw up their lips to show that the tooth is knocked out * ; then he will not injure them ; but should the tooth be still there, he runs after them, and kills and eats them. He does not walk, but bounds like a kangaroo, and the noise of his leaps on the ground is as the report of a gun ; he calls out as he advances, 'Pirrolog, Pirrolog.' T i 1 m u n, m., a small bird of the size of a thrush. It is supposed by the women to be the first maker of women ; or to be a woman transformed after death into the bird ; it runs up trees like a woodpecker. These birds are held in veneration by the women only. The bat, k o 1 u g - k o 1 u g, is held in veneration on the same ground by the men, who suppose the animal a mere transformation. Tippakalin, Mailkun, and B i m p 6 i n, are names of the wife of K 0 i n, q.v. She is a much more terrific being than her husband ; him the blacks do not dread, because he does not kill them ; but this female being not only carries off the natives in a large bag-net and drags them beneath the earth, but she spears the children through the temples ; she thus kill them, and no one ever sees again those whom she obtains. Turrama, m., an instrument of war, called by Europeans a 'boomerang.' It is of a half-moon shape ; when thrown in the air it revolves on its own centre and returns, forming * This is a proof that the black man has been duly initiated at the ceremonies of the Bora. See s.v. Yarro. — Ed. 50 A^ austealia:n" LAyauAGE. a curve in its orbit from and to the thrower; to effect this, it is thrown against tlie wind; but in war it is thrown against the ground ; it then rebounds apparently with double violence, and strikes some distant object, aud wounds severely with its sharpened extremities. Y a r r o, m., an egg. But, used in a mystic sense, to the initiated ones it means ' lire or water.' And by the use of this term in asking for either element, the fraternity can discover them- selves to each other. The men, after the tooth is knocked out in the Bora rites, call women k u u n a i k a r a, and themselves J i r a b a i ; previous to which the men are styled, k oro m u n. The ceremony of initiation takes place every three or four years as young lads arrive at the age of puberty ; mystic rings are made in the woods, aud numerous ceremonies are gone through before the operation of displacing a tooth from the upper jaw ; this is effected by three steady blows with a stout piece of hard wood, in shape like a punch, from the hand of the k ara k al ; after that, the youth may seize a woman ; he becomes a member of the tribe and engages in their fights. Yulug, the name of the ring in which the tooth is knocked out. The trees are marked near the ring with rude repre- sentation of locusts, serpents, and other things, on the bark ; these are chopped with an axe; aud copies of the nests of various quadrupeds are formed on the ground near the spot. The celebrants dance for several days every morning and evening, continuing the whole of the night ; no women are allowed to join in the ceremony. (2) GEOQEAPHICAL NAMES. Awaba, Lake Macquarie ; the word means ' a plain surface.' B i w o g k u 1 a, the place of red ti-trees ; from b i w o g, ' red ti-tree.' B o i k 6 n u m b a, a place of ferns ; from b o i k o n, ' fern.' B o u n, the site of VVallis's Plains ; from a bird of that name. B 11 1 b a, an island ; any place surrounded with water. B u 1 k a r a, any mountain ; from b u 1 k a, ' the back ' of a man or a beast. B u 1 1 a b a, the name of a hiH on the margin of the Lake, fjrarawantara, any plain, a flat. ■G-oloyauwe, a point of land on the south side of the Lake, (xdrroinba, the female-emu place; from gdrroin, 'the female emu ' ; ' the male emu ' is k 6 g k o r 6 g, from his cry. ^rurranba, a place of brambles; from g u r r a n, an inferior sort of ' bramble.' K a i a r a b a, a place of ' sea-weeds.' Karakunba, a place of 'swamp-oaks,' which is a species of pine. K e e 1 - k e e 1 b a, a place of ' grass-tree.' HIE TOCABULAET. 51 Kintiirrabin, the name of a small extinct volcnno on the sea-coast, near Ked Head, north-east of Lake Maeqiiarie. ■Ivo i k a 1 i gb a, a place ot" brambles; from koikalig, a sort of ' bramble,' bearing a berry like a raspberry. Koiy 6 g, the site of any native camp. Kona-konaba, the name of the place where the stone called kona-kona is found. There are veins in the stone, which contain a yellow substance used for paint in warlike expedi- tions. It is the name of a large mountain, at the uorthei'u extremity of Lake Macquarie. Ko purr aba, the name of the phace from which the blacks obtain the k o p u r r a, a yellowish earth, which they wet, mould up into balls, and then burn in a strong fire ; the fire makes it change into a brilliant red, somethmg like red ochre ; the men and women paint themselves with it, after mixing it with the kidney fat of the kangaroo ; this paint they use always at their dances. Kurra-kurran, the name of a place in which there is almost a forest of petrifactions of wood, of various sizes, extremely well defined. It is in a bay at the north-western extremity of Lake Macc[uarie. The tradition of the aborigines is, that for- merly it was one large rock which fell from the heavens and killed a number of blacks who were assembled there ; thev had gathered themselves together in that spot by command of an immense iguana, which came down from heaven for that purpose ; the iguana was angry at their having killed lice by roasting them in the fire ; those who had killed the vermin by cracking them, had been previously speared to death by him with a long reed from heaven ! At that remote period, the moon was a man named Pontobug; and hence the moon is called he to the present day; but ttie sun, being formerly a woman, retains the feminine pronoun she. When the iguana saw all the men were killed by the fall of the stone, he ascended up into heaven, where he is supposed to be now. K utta i, the site of Sydney Light-house ; any peninsula. M u 1 u b i n b a, the name of the site of Newcastle, from an indigenous ' fern ' named m u 1 u b i n. Mullug-bula, the name of two upright rocks about nine feet high, springing up from the side of a bluff head on the margin of the Lake. The blacks affirm, from tradition, that they are two women who were transformed into rocks, in consequence of.tbeir being beaten to death by a black man. Beneath the mountain on which the two pillars stand, a seam of common coal is seen, many feet thick, from which Reid obtained a cargo of coals when he mistook the entrance of this lake for Newcastle. A portion of a wharf built by him still exists at this place, which is still called Eeid's Mistake ; [i.e., in 1834]. 52 AK AUSTRALIAN LA>"GUAGE. M u n u g - g u r r a b a, tlie place to Avhich ' sea-snipe ' resort. Miinukan is the name of a point, under which is a seam of cannel coal, and beneath that is a thick seam of superior common coal, and both jut into the sea betwixt three and four fathoms of water. The government mineral surveyor found, on examination, that the two veins were nearly nine feet in thickness, and the coal of excellent quality; [i.e.. in ISSl]. jS^ikkinba, a place of coals, from n i k k i n, ' coal.' The whole Lake, twenty-one miles long by eight broad, abounds with coal. Niritiba, the name of the island at the entrance of the lake; from niriti, the ' mutton bird,' which abounds there. P i t o b a, a place of pipe clay ; from p i t o, ' pipe clay,' which is used at a death by the deceased's relatives to paint their whole body, in token of mourning. P u n t e i, a ' narrow ' place ; the name of any narrow point of land. Purribagba, the ' ant's-nest place ' ; from within these nests a yellow dusty substance is collected, and used by the blacks as a paint for their bodies, called p u r r i b a g. The ants gather the substance for some unknown purpose. Tirabeenba, a tooth-like point of land ; from t i r a, 'a tooth.' T u 1 k a b a, the soft ti-tree place ; from t u 1 k a, ' ti-tree.' Tulkiriba, a place of brambles ; from t u 1 k i r i, 'a bramble.' Tumpoaba, a clayey place ; from t u m p o a, ' clay,' W fi r a w a 1 1 u g , the name of a high mountain to the west of Lake Macquarie. This has been partly cleared of timber, by order of the Surveyor- General ; as a land-mark it is seen from a considerable distance. The name is derived from w a 1 1 u g, the ' human head,' from its appearance. "VV a u w a r a n, the name of a hole of fresh water in the vicinity of Lake Macquarie, betwixt it and the mountains westerly ; said by the blacks to be bottomless, and inhabited by a monster of a fish much larger than a shark, called w a u w a i ; it frequents the contiguous swamp and kills the aborigines ! There is another resort for these fish near an island in Lake Macquarie named boroyirdg, from the cliffs of which if stones be thrown down into the sea beneath, the ti-tree bark floats up, and then the monster is seen gradually arising from the deep ; if any natives are at hand, he overturns their canoe, swallows the crew alive, and then the entire canoe, after which he descends to his resort in the depths below ! Y i r a n n a 1 a i, the name of a place near Newcastle on the sea beach, beneath a high cliff"; it is said that if any persons speak there, the stones fall down from the high arched rocks above ; for the crumbling state of these is such that the concussions of air from the voice cause the pieces of the loose rock to come down ; this once occurred to myself when I was in company with some blacks here. THE TOCABrLAET. 53 (3) coiiiiox >'orxs. B. Balbai, ;«.,* an axe. Baiyag-baiyag, 7n., a butterfly. Bate, ;«., water ; cf. gapoi Berabukkau, m., sperm wliale; the natives do not eat this ; cf. torog-gaiJ. Biggai, m., an elder brother. Bintunkin, m., a father. Birraba, vi., a small shell fish. Biyug, m., 'father,' addressive. Biyugbai, m., a father. Boaliig, m., mangrove seed. Boarrig, m., misty rain. Boata, m., the cat-fish. Boawal, m., the curlew. Bugkin, 7)1., vermin, as fleas. Bukkai, m., the bark of a tree ; the ski a of animals. Bulbug, m., a small species of kangaroo. Bunkuu, 711., a red sea-slug which adheres to the rocks, and is known to Europeans as ' kunjewai.' Burug, m., hair on the head. Wiirun, m., hair on the body. Kitug, 7H., the short hair of animals. Tirrig, «?., the fur of the opossum tribe. Buttikag, 7«., any beast. G. G-apal, 7n., a concubine. Gapoi, giiyuwa, g«6g, kulbg, m., names for fresh water ; cf. kokoin, bato, and yarro. Garawan,?;?., a plain flat place. Gardg-gardg, 7n., a rough place. Garo-geen, ;«., an old woman. Garo-mbai, m , an old man. Gauwo, m., a sea-gull. Girrinbai, on., first-born female. Wiig-gunbai, youngest „ Golokonug, })i., a large kind of schnapper. Gorokan, «i., the morning dawn Guraki, ???., one initiated; hence, a wise person. K. Kan ; kurriwirara ; ?«., a brown diamond snake. Maiyii, «?., the general name for snakes. Kanin, m., a fresh-water eel. Karai, 7?i., flesh of any sort, but chiefly of the kangaroo, Karakal, «?., a wizard, doctor, sorcerer. Karoburra, ra., a large whiting. Kardg-karog, m., a pelican. Kearapai, m., the white cock- atoo. AVaiila,?».,theblack cockatoo ; its breeding place is un- known to the blacks. Keilai, m., urine. Kikoi, w., a native cat; is very destructive to poultry. Kinnun, ?«.,the women's nets ; used as bags. Kipai. 7n., fat, grease, &c. Kira-kira; kiiueta; ?«., the male and the female king-parrot. Kirika and korunnag, m., two kinds of native honey. Mipparai,;;?., the honey-comb. jS'ukkug, m., the small sting- less bee of this country. 1 Mikal, 711., the honey in the blossoms of the honey- suckle tree. Karaka, w., the honey in the blossom of the grass-tree. * T.ie m, throughout, stands for meaning ; it is inserted merely to divide the native word fro.u its signification. — Ed. 54 AN AUSTRALIAN LANCiTTAGE. Kirrin, m., pain. Kogka, ?«., a reed. Kog korog, m., an emu ; from the noise it makes. Koiwon, m., rain. Ivoiyog, 711., a native camp. Koiyug, m., fire. Kokabai, w., a -wild yam. Kokei; wimbi; winnug; m., na- tive vessels made of the bark of tree.s, and used as baskets or bowls. Kokera, m., a native hut. Kokoin, m., water ; cf., gapoi Kokug, ?«., frogs ; are so called from the noise they make. Komimi, ;»., a shadow. Konug ; kintarig ; m., dung. Kdnug-gai, m., a Eool. Koreil, ot., a shield. Koropun, ■;«., fug, mist, haze. Korowa-talag, m., a cuttle fish ; lit., ' wave-tongue.' Korro, m., the wind-pipe. Kotara, m., a club, a waddy. Kotumag, m., the land tortoise. Kulai, m., trees, wood, timber. KuUiira, m., a fish- spear. Kullearig, m., the throat. KuUig, in., a shell. Kulligtiella, m., a knife. Kullo, m., the cheeks. Kumara, m., blood. Kumba, m., to-morrow. Kumbal, m., a younger brother. Kunbul, m., the black swan. Kuri, m., man, mankind. Kurratag ; murrin ; m., thebody. Kurrabun, m., a murderer. Kurraka, m., the mouth. Kurrakog, m., the eldest male. Taiyol, m., the youngest male. Kurra-koiyog, m.. a shark. Kurrugkun; muttaura; 7».,the schnapper. Kuttal, m., the smoke of a fire ; tobacco ; cf. poito. Koun, VI., the mangrove bush. M. Makoro, m.. the general name for fish. Malama, pirig-gun, pinkun, and wdttol, m., lightning. Marai, m., the soul, the spirit; ' the same a? the wind, we cannot see him,' was the definition given by a black. Meini, m., sand-flies. Minmai, m., the gigantic lily. Miroma, m., a saviour. Moani, m., the kangaroo. Mokoi, m., mud oysters. Molakan, in., the season of the wane of the moon. Moto, in., a black-snake. Miila, m., a boil. Mulo, m., thunder. Mumuya, m., a corpse, a ghost. Mi'mbonkfin, ;;?.,the rock oyster. Munni, m., sickness. Muraban,7«., blossom, flowers. Murrakin, m., young maidens. Muriin, m., the body. Murri-nauwai, m., a ship, boat. K". Nukug, m., a woman, women. Nulka ; anulka; ?«., iron ; this is a kind of iron-stone, which abounds on the sea-coast. There is a vein of iron ore running over coal at the sea entrance of Lake Macquarie. Paiyabara, m., the large ti-tree. Pillapai, m., a valley or hollow. THE YOCABULABT. 55 Pimpi, m., ashes. Pippita, m., a small hawk ; so called from its cry. Pirama and wommarakan, m., a wild duck and drake. Piriwal, m., a chief or king. Pirrita, m., au oyster which grows on the mangrove tree. Pittog ; talowai ; m., two kinds of roots of the arum species ; the taro of Tahiti. Poito, m., the smoke of a fire. Pdno, m., dust. Poribai, «?., a husband. Porikunbai, «?., a wife. Porowi, on., an eagle. Porun, m., a dream or vision. Porun-witilliko, OT.,to dream. Pukko, m., a stone axe. Pulli, m., salt. Pulli, VI., voice, language. Puna, m., sea sand. Punbug, m., sea-slug, blubber. Puniial, m., the sun. Piirai, m., earth, land, the world. Purreag, m., day. Purramai, m., a cockle. Purramaiban, m., an animal like a ferret, but amphibious ; it lives on cockles. Purrimunkan, m., a sea-salmon. T. Taiyol, m., the youngest male. Tembiribeen, in., a death adder. The aborigines, when bitten, usually suck the wound, as a remedy. Tibbin, in., a bird. Tibun, m , a bone. Ti^ko, m., a bitch. Tiral, m., a bough of a tree. Tirriki, m., the flame of fire ; the colour red. Tirril, ni., the tick, a voTiomons insect in this country that enters the skin of young dogs, pigs, lambs, cats, and is fatal, but not to man ; it is exactly similar in size and shape to the English tick, but its effects are soon discovered ; for the animal becomes para- lyzed in its hind quarters, sickness comes on, and death follows in two or three days after the paralysis has taken place. Tokoi, m., night. Topig, m., a mosquito. Tordg-gun, m., the black whale ; this the blacks eat, whilst the sperm whale is not eaten. Tukkara, m., winter. Tullokan, m., property, riches. Tulmun, m., a grave. Tulun, m., a mouse. Tuukan, m., a mother, a dam. Tunug, m., a rock, a stone. Tupea-tarawog and ninag, m., names of the flat-head fish. Turea, m., a bream-fish. W. Wairai, m., the spear for battle, or for hunting. Motig, m., the spear for fish. Waiydg, m., a sort of yam. Waliun, m., a crow ; from its cry, wak-wak-wak. Warikal, m., a dog ; the species. Warikal and waiyi, m., the male and female tame dog. Yuki and mirri, m., the male and female native dog. Murrogkai, m., the wild dog species, Waroi, m., the hornet. Waropara, m., the honeysuckle. 56 AN AUSTBALTAN LANOITAOE. Willai, m., an opossum. "Wimbi, 7rt., a bowl ; generally made from the knot of a tree. TVippi or wibbi, m., the wind. Wirripag, m., the large eagle- hawk, which devours young kangaroos, lambs, &c. Woiyo, m., grass. "Wombal, m., the sea-beach. Wommara, m., the instrument used as a lever for throwing the spear ; cf. gorro. "Wonnai, w., a child, children. Woropil, «i., a blanket, clothes. "Worowai, w., a battle, a fight. Worowiin, m., a kangaroo-skin cloak. Wattawan, tw., a large mullet. AViiggurrapin, m., young lads. Wuggurrabula, m., ye two lads. Wuna], m., summer. Wurunkan, m., flies. Tapug, m., a path, a broad way. Tarea, m., the evening. Tareil and yura, m., the clouds. Tilen, m., bait. Tinal, m., a eon. Tinalkun, m., a daughter. Tirra, m., a wooden sword. Tirrig, m., a quill, a pen. Tulo, m., a footstep, a track. Tunug, VI., a turtle. Yuroin, m,, a bream-fish. (4) PAET8 OF THE BODY. The Read. Kittug, m., the hair of the head. Wallug, m., the head. Kappara, vi., the skull. Kumborokan, m., the brain. Yintirri ; golo ; m., the forehead. Tukkal, m., the temples. Giireug ; turrakurri ; ?«., the ear. Yulkara, «i., the eye-brows. Woipin, m., the eye-lashes. Graikug ; porowug ; m., the eye. Tarkin ; goara ; on., the face. Nukoro, m., the nose. Kullo, m., the cheeks. Tumbiri ; willig ; m., the lips. Kurraka, m , the mouth. Gunturra ; tirra ; w., the teeth. Tallag, m., the tongue. Wattan, m., the chin. Yarrei, m., the beard. Untag, m., the lower jaw. KuUeug, m., the neck ; it is also called ' wuroka.' Kullearig, m., the throat. Koro, m., the windpipe. The Trunk. Kurrabag, m., the body. Murrin, m., the body. Miimurrakun ) m., the collar- Milka-milka, j bone. Mirrug, m., the shoulder. Kopa, m., the upper arm. Turrug, m., the lower arm. Gruna, m., the elbow. The Hands and Feci. Mattara, m., the hand. Tunkanbeen, m., the thumb lit., the mother or dam. Niimba, m., the first finger. Purrokulkun, m., the second ,, Kotau, m., the third ,, THE TOCABULAET. 57 G.irakonbi, in., the little fin<;er. Tirri ; tirreil ; «?., the nails uf the fingers and toes. AVani, m., the palm of the hand; cf. warapal, ?«., level, plain. Tug kag keri, -w.jthe right hand. AVuntokeri, m., the left hand. Bulka, «?., the back; either of the hand or of the body. Paiyil, m., the breasts. Gripug, VI., the nipple. \V' ai ara, m., the chest, breasts. Nara, m., the ribs. Knrialag, w»., the side or body. Turoiai, m., the right side. G-oraon, m., the left side. Parra or Avarra, m., the belly. Parra, m , the bosom. AViiinal, ?»., the loins. Gr.ikag, m. the hips. The Limh3. Buloinkoro, m., the thighs. AV'oloma o?-lara, m.,the calf of the leg. G.iri, m., the shins. AN'arombug, tn., the knees. Papin;'in, korog-gai, and mokul- niokul, m., the knee-pan. Wirugkag, m., theauKies. Mnkko ; monug ; in., the heels. Tullo, m., the sole of the foot. , Tinna, in., the toes ; the foot. The Intestines. Bulbiil, m., the heart. Purxanai, in., the kidney ; also a cockle, from its shape. Munng, in., the liver. Yokol, m., the lungs. Konarig; konug; wi., the bowels. Purring; pnttara; m., the flesh. Meva, in., the sinews. Tiirrakil, m., the veins. Tog-tog, in., the marrow. Tibun, m., the bone. Moika, m.,the fatty substance betwixt the joints. Bukkai, m., the skin. AVurun, m., the downy hair on the skin. Grordg, m., the blood. (5) B. BeehnuUiko, 7;?., to mock, to deride, to make sport. Birrikilliko, in., to lie along, to lie down so as to sleep. BoibuUiko, m., to know car- nally. Boinkulliko, w., to kiss. Bombilliko, in., to blow with the mouth. Boug-biig-gulliko, VI., to cause another to arise, to compel to ari.>'e. Boug-wulliko, m., to raise one's self up, to arise. Biig-bug, m., to salute. Bukka, «?., to be wrathful, to be furious. Bulpor-bug-gulliko, m., to cause to be lost property, to lose. Bum-bug-gulliko, ??i.,tocause to be loose, to opeii a door. Biimmarabunbilliko, m., to per- mit another to be struck. Bummilliko, m., to find. Bummunbilliko, ;»., to permit another to strike. Bunkilliko,7»., to strike, smite; to aim a blow v:ith a weapon. Bunbilliko, on., to permit, to let ; this is an auxiliary verb. 58 AN AUSTEALIAIT LANGUAGE. Bi'mmulliko, m., to rob, to take by violence, to snatch. Bur-bug-gulliko, m., to cause to be light or well, to cure. Burkulliko, in., to be light as a bird, to fly; to be convales- cent. Burug-biig-gulliko, wj., to cause to be loose, to set at liberty. G Gakilliko, m., to see, to look, to observe with the eye. Gakombilliko, m., to deceive, to cheat. Gakontibunbilliko, «?., to dis- regard, not to mind. Gakoyelliko, in., to lie, to tell a falsehood. Gamaigulliko, m., to see, to look, but not to notice. Garabo, m., to sleep. Garawatilliko. m., to lose one's self. Garbug-gulliko, m., to convert into, to cause to become. Gari-gari, m., to pant. Garo-garo, m., to fall down. Garokilliko, m., to stand upon the feet. Garokinbilliko, m., to stand up. Gimilliko, m., to know by the eye, as a person or place. GiratimuUiko, m., to feed, to give food. Girulliko, m., to tie. Goitig, m., to be short. Goloin, m., to be complete or finished. Gukilliko, m., to give, to pre- sent. Gumaigulliko, m., to offer. Gupaiyiko, m., to give back, to pay, to return in exchange. Gurald, ;;?., to be wise, skilful. Gurra-korien, m., not to bear. Gurramag, in., to be initiated. Gurramaigulliko, m., to hear, but not to obey. Gurrara, m., to pity. Gurrawatilliko, m., for remem- brance to pass away, to for- get any place, or road ; cf. woguntilliko. Gurrayelliko, m., to hearken, to be obedient, to believe. Gurrulliko, m., to hear, to obey, to understand with the ear. Gurrunborburrilliko, m., to let fall tears, to weep, to shed tears. K. Iva-amulliko, m., to cause to be assembled together, to assemble. Ivaipulliko, in., to call out, to cry aloud. Tvaiyu,w.,to be able, powerful, mighty. Kakilli-ban-kora, m., do not be. Kakilliko, in., to be, to exist in any state. Kaki-yikora, m., be not. Ivapirri, m., to be hungry. Kapulliko, in., to do ; without the idea of effect upon any object. Karabulliko, m., to spill. Karakai, in., to be active, to be quick, to hasten. Karakal-imiulliko, in., to cure, to make well ; a compoiand of ' karakai,' a doctor, and 'umulliko,' to do, to make. Karol, in., to be hot, to perspire from the heat of the sun. Kauwal, m., to be large, great. K.ekal, in., to be sweet, plea- sant, nice, delightful. Kia-kia, m., to be courageous, strong, powerful ; to conquer. THE \OCABULVRT. 59 Kilbug-gulliko, m., to compel to snap. Ivilburrilliko, w., to snap at by means of something, as a hook is snapped at by a fish. Kilkulliko, m., to snap asun- der, as a cord of itself. Killibinbin, m., to shine, to be brijiht, to be glorious. Kimulliko, m., to wring, to squeeze as a sponge, to milk. Ivimmulliko, m., to broil meat on coals of fire. Kinta, «?., to be afraid. Kiutai; kintelliko; ««., to laugh. Kiuukinari, m., to be wet. Ivirabarawirrilliko, m., to twirl the stem of grass-tree until it ignites. Kirilliko, m., to lade out waier, to bail a canoe or boat. Kiroapulliko, «?., to pour out water, to empty water. Kirrai-kirrai, m., to revolve, to go round. Kirrawi, m., to be lengthy, to be long; c/!'goitig,' m., to be short in length. Kirrin, m., to pain. Kitelliko, m., to chew. Kiunurig, m., to be wet. Ko, m., to be, to come into ex- istence. Koakilliko, m., to rebuke, to scold, to quarrel. Koinomulliko, «*., to cough. Koipulliko, ??«., to smell. Koitta, 7«., to stink. Koiyubulliko, w., to burn with fire. Koiyun, m., to be ashamed. Kolayelliko, m., to keep secret, not to tell, not to disclose. Kolbi, m., to sound, as the Avind or sea in a storm. Kolbuntilliko, m., to chop with an axe or scythe, to mow. K(illabi]liko, in., to fish with a line. The line is held in the hand. Kollamulliko, m., to make se- cret, to conceal anything told. Konein, in., to be handsome, pretty. KontiuiuUiko, m., to wear as a dress. Ivorawalliko, m , to watch, to stay by a thing. Korien, m., not to be ; the nega- tive form of ' ko.' Korokal, m., to be worn out, threadbare. Korokon, m., to roar, as the wind or sea ; cf'. kolbi. Korun, m., to be silent, to be quiet. Korunpaiyelliko, in., to remain silent. Kotabunbinla, in., to permit to think, to remember. Kotelliko, VI., to think. Kottiin, m., to be wet and chilly, from rain. Kugun, in., to be muddy. Kulbilliko, in., to lean, to re- cline. Kulbun-kulbun, m., to be very handsome, elegant. Ivulwun, in., to be stiff, clay- cold, as a corpse. Kum-bara-paiyelliko, m., to be troublesome, to give one a headache by noise. Kumbaro, m., to be giddy, to have a headache from dizzi- ness. Kuubun, m., to be rotten, as a skin or cloth. Kunbuntilliko, in., to cut with a knife. Kuuna, in., to be burned. Kurkulliko, in., to spring up, to jump, to leap. Kur-kur, m., to be cold. GO AN AUSTRALIAN LAXGUAOE. Kurmiir, w., to be rotten, as wood; c/!, kuubun. Kurr.i, V2.. to be slow. Jvurrjigkopilliko, m., to spit. Kurral, m., to be disabled, to be wounded. Kurrilliko, m., to carry. Kuttawaiko, m., to be satisfied with food, satiated, drunk. M. Ma, w., to challenfi^e, to dare; to command to do. Miinkilliko, m., to take, to ac- cept, to take hold of. Manmunbilliko, ■;;?., to cause to take, to let take, to let have. Mardgkoiyelliko, m., to pro- claim, to make known. Matelliko, m., to be gluttonous. Meapuliiko, in., to plant. Mimulliko, m., to detain, to compel to. wait. Minki, m., to sorrow, to sym- pathize. Minkilliko, m., to remain, to dwell. MiromuUiko, m., to keep. Mirial, m., to be without, to be poor, miserable ; a desert place. Mirrilliko, ???., to sharpen into a point, as a spear. Mirrinupulliko, OT.,to cause to be sharp. Mitti, m., to be small. Mittilliko, m., to wait, to stay, to remain. Mitug, m., to be cut, wounded, sore. Morilliko, m., to wind up as a string. Moron, ???., to be alive. Moroun, m., to be tame, quiet, docile, patient. Mdttilliko, m., to pound with a stone, like pestle and mortar. Mulamulliko, m., to vomit. Mumbilliko, m., to borrow, to lend. Munui, m., to be sick, ill, or to be diseased. Muntilliko, w.,to be benighted, to be overtaken with dark- ness. Mupai, m., to fast; to keep the mouth closed ; to be silent, dumb. Mupaikaiyelliko, «?., to remain silent, to continue dumb. Murralliko, m., to run. Murrarag, ???., to be good, ex- cellent, valuable. X. ]S'eilpaIyelliko,77?.,to shout; the noise of war or play. Nigulliko, 7??., to play, to sport. NiiJau-nillan, m., to be smashed into pieces. Ximulliko, m., to pinch. Ninmilliko, in., to seize, to snatch. Niuwara, m., to be angry, dis- pleased. Nug-gurrawolliko, m., to meet. Niigkilliko, «2., to be success- i'ul, fortunate ; to obtain. NummuUiko, m., to press, to force down. Numulliko, m., to touch with the hand. Nupulliko, m., to try, to learn, to attempt. Nurilliko, vi., to throw the ' boomerang.' P. Paikulliko, vu, to act of its own power, to act of itself. Paikulliko, w., to show one's self spontaneously. Paipilliko, m., to appear, to be- come visible. THE TOCABUL.VRY. 61 Paipillilco, «?., to act ; excluding the idea oi: cause. ral[al, m., to vibrate, to swing, as in a swing. Papai, m., to be close at hand. Peakulliko, m., to letch w-ater. Pillatoro, m., to set; as tlie sun, moon, and stars. Pillobuntilliko, m., to be sunk, Avrecked. Pillokulliko, m., to sink. Pinkurkulliko.OT., to burst as a bladder, oi" itself. Pinnilliko, m , to dig. Pintakilliko, m , to float. AVatpulliko, m., to swim. Pintilliko, m., to knock down, as with an axe ; to shock, as Avith electricity. Pipabunbilliko, m., to permit to stride, to let stride. Pipelliko, w., to stride, straddle. Pirra, m., to be tired. Pirral-mulliko, m., to urge. Pirriko, w., to be deep. Pirriral, m.,to be hard, strong; cf. kunbon, m., to be soft. Pirun-kakilliko, ot., to be glad, to be pleased. Pital-kakilliko, m., to be glad, to be pleased, to be happy. Pilal-muUiko, m., to cause joy, to make happy. Pittabunbilliko, «;., to permit to drink, to let drink. Pittalliko, m., to drink. Pittamulliko, m., to make to drink, to cause to drink. Poaibug-gulliko, m., to compel to grow\ Poai-buntilliko, m., to cause to grow. Poai-kuUiko, m., to grow up of itself. Poiyeakulliko, ot., to be suspen- ded, to hang on ; to infect. Poiyelliko,7??.,to beg, to entreat. Pdnkdg, m., to be short. Pdr-bug-gulliko, in., to compel to drop. Pdrburrilltko, ?»., to cause to drop by means of something. Porei, m., to be tall. Pc5r-kakilliko, m., to be drop- ped, to be born. Porobulliko, «i., to smooth. Porogkal, m., to be globular, to be round. Porrdl, m., to be heavy ; to be slow. Pdrunwitilliko, m., to dream a dream. Potobuntilliko, m., to cause a hole, to bleed a person. Potoburrilllko, w., to burst a hole with something. Potopai_\anuii-wal vi , will burst. Pulluntara, m., to shine, as with ointment. Puldg-kulliko, «?., to enter, to go or come into. Pulul-pulul, «?., to shake with cold, to tremble. Punta, in., to be mistaken \\\ any tiling. Puntimulliko, in., to cause to fall, to throw down. Purkulliko, m., to fly. PuromuUiko, m., to lift up. Puto, m., to be black. Puttiliiko, m., to bite. Ta-killiko, m., to eat. TaleamuUiko, m., to catch any thing thrown. Talig-kakilliko, OT.,tobe across. Ta-munbilliko, ««., to permit to eat, to let eat. Tauan, m., to approach. Tardgkamulliko, m., to cause to mix, to miiigle. Tetti, m. to be dead. G2 AS AUSTRALIAN LAXGrAGE. Tetti-ba-bunbilliko, m., to per- mit to die, to let die. Tetti-ba-bun-burrilHko, m., to permit to be put to death bj some means. Tetti-bug-gulliko, in., to compel to be dead, to kill, to murder. Tetti-buUiko, m., to die, to be in the act of dying. Tetti-bunkulliko, ;;;., to smite dead, to strike dead. Tetti-burrilliko, m., to cause to die by some means, as poison. Tetti-kakilliko, m., to be dead, to be ill that state. Tiir-bug-ga-bunbilliko, m., to let break. Tiir-bug-sulliko, m., to compel to break. Tiirburribunbilliko, «?., to per- mit to break by means of . . . . Tiirburrilliko, m., to break by means of something. Tiirkullibunbilliko,'»?., to allow to break of itself. Tiirkulliko, «?., to break of its own itself, as wood. Tirag-kakilliko,w?., to beawake. Tirriki, m., to be red. hot ; the colour red. Tittilliko, m., to pluck. Tiwolliko, m., to seek, to search. Tiyumbilliko, m., to send any kind of property, cf., yukul- liko. Tokol, m., to be true ; the truth; this takes 'bo ta' with it. Toldg-tolog, m.,to separate. Tolomulliko, m., to shake any thing. Torololal, m., to be slippery, slimy. Tottdg and tdttorig ; m., to be naked. This word must be carefully distinguished from ' tdtug,' news, intelligence. Tug-gunbil]iko,w2., to show. Tugkatnulliko, m., to find ; lit., to make to appear. Tiigkilliko, m., to cry, to bewail. Tuirkulliko, in., to drag along, to draw. Tukin-umulliko, m.,to preserve, to keep, to take care of. Tukkara, m., to be cold. Tulbulliko, m., to run fast, to escape. Tullamulliko, m., to hold by the hands. Tulla-tullai, m., to be in a rage. Tuloin, m., to be narrow. Tulutilliko, m., to kick. Tunbilliko, ;;?., to exchange. Tiinbamabunbilliko, m., to per- mit to string together. Tvinbamulliko, m., to string to- gether. Turabunbilliko, m., to permit to pierce. Turakaiyelliko, m.,to convince. Turinwiyelliko, «?., to swear the truth, to adjure to speak the truth. Turdl, m., to be in a state of healing, to be well ; as a cut or wound. Turdnpiri, m., to suffer hunger. Turral, in., to split. Turral-bug-gulliko, )n.,to cause to split, to make to split. Turramulliko, m., to throw a stone. Turrug, m., to be close together. Turukdnbilliko, in., to punish. Turukilliko, in., to grow up, to shoot up. Turulliko, in., to pierce, prick, stab, sting, lance, spear. Tiitdg, in., to be stunned, in- sensible, apparently dead. THE VOCABULARY. (53 tr. TJmulliko, m., to do, to make, to create. Unmulliko, m., to make afraid, ^ to affright, to startle. Uutelliko, on., to dance. Upulliko, on., to do with, to use, to work with. Uwolliko, m., to come oo' go ; to walk, to pass, &c. AV. "Waipilliko, on., to wrestle. Waipulliko, m., to hunt. Waita,w.,to depart, to be away. AYamulliko, m., to bark a tree, to skin. "Wamunbilliko, on., to permit to go, to let go away. Warakarig, on., to be full, to be satiated. "Warekulliko, on., to put away, to cast away ; to forgive. "Warin-warin, m., to be crooked. "Wari-wari-kulliko, ot., to strew, to scatter about, to sow seed. Warau, on., to be flat oo- level, to be plain. "Waruwai, on., to battle, to en- gage in fighting. Watpulliko, m., to swim, to stretch the hands to swim. Wattawalliko, on., to tread, to stamp with the foot or feet. "Wauwibunbilliko, on., to i)er- mit to float, to let float. "Wauwilliko, on., to float ; as a cork or feather. Weilkorilliko, on., to flog, whip, scourge. "Weir-weir, on., to be lame. "Willug, willuntin, on., to be be- hind, to come after, to be last. * Note. — Other verbs also take this for walking ; as, ta-tei-illi Willug bo, willug, in., to return. Winelliko, m., to burn with fire, to scorch. Wirabakilliko, on., to heat, to be becoming hot. Wirakakilliko, on., to be hot. Wirrigbakilliko, on., to close up, to shut a door. "Wirrilliko, on., to wind up, as a ball of string. W irrob ulliko, on.,io follow after. "Witelliko, on., to smoke a pipe. Wittilliko, on., to sing. WittimuUiko, on., to fall, to be thrown down. Wiyelliko, on., to speak, to say, to tell, to command, to ask. Wiyabunbilliko, in., to per- mit to speak, to let speak. "VViya-lei-illiko,* on., to talk and walk. Wiyayelliko, on., to speak in reply, to answer. Wiyayimulliko, on., to accuse. "Wiyea, on., to say again, to repeat. Woatelliko, on., to lick. Wogkal, m., to be foolish, not clever, stupid. Wogimtilliko, ot., to forget any thing told ; cf., giirrawatil liko. Woro-woro, on., to swell. "Wotara, m., to be shallow. Wunkilliko, on., to leave. Wiinmarabunbilliko, on., to per- mit to be left, to let be left. Wuno, on., to stoop or bend in walking. Wupilliko, on., to put, to place. Wurunbarig, on., to be hairy; as an animal. Wntilliko, on., to cover, to put on clothes. m whenever the act is conjoined with ko, ' to eat and walk.' Gi AX ArSTBALIAN LANGUAGE. T. Tarakal. m., to be bad, evil. Yaialkulliko, w., to move away, as the clouds!. Tarigkulliko, «?., to laugh. Yellawa-bug-gulliko, on., to compel to sit, to force to sit. Tellawa-bunbilliko, m., to per- mit to sit dowu. Tellawolliko, m., to cross legs down on the ground ; to sit, to remain, to rest. Temmamulliko, «?., to lead ; as by the hand, or as a horse by a rope. Tiirkulliko, w., to tear of itself, as cloth ; to break. Tiirkabunbilliko, w., to per- mit to tear, to let tear. Tiirburririlliko, w., to tear, by means of something. Tiirburri-bun-billiko, m., to permit to tear, by means of something. Tiirbug-gulliko, on., to com- pel to tear. Tiirbug-ga-bunbilliko, m., to permit compulsively to tear. TimuUiko, m., to make light, as fur is caused to lie lightly before the blacks twist it into cord ; to encourage, to cheer Tinbilliko, on., to kindle a fire. Yiremba, on., to bark ; as a dog. Yitelliko, on., to nibble or bite; as a fish the bait. Tuaipilliko, on., to push away, to thrust out. YukuUiko, on., to send, as a messenger, to send property ; rf., tiyumbilliko. Yuntilliko, m., to cause pain, to hurt. Yurig, on., to go away. Yurdgkilliko, on,, to dive. Yuropulliko, on., to conceal from view, to hide Yurrug-gun, w., to be faint with hunger. Yutilliko, on., to guide, to show the way by guiding. Yutpilliko, on., to pulsate, to beat, to throb. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTEXCES. G5 CHAPTER V. ILLUSTEATIYE SEXTEXCES. Aboriginal sentences literally rendered into English.* 1. ON THE SIMPLE-KOillXATIYE CASE. Gran ke bi? gatoa, Bouni; w., who are you? it is I, Bonni. Who be thou? I, ,, Gan ke unni, unnoa, unniig? m., who is tin's, that, Who be this? that? there? there? Kuri uniii, uukug unnoa, wonnai unnug; Man this, woniaii tliat, chihl there. m., this is a man ; that is a woman ; there is a child. Minarig ke unni? warai ta unni; «?., whatis this ? it is What be this ? spear it is tliis. a spear. Minarig-ko ke unnoa? turulliko; «?., what is that for? What - for be that ? for-to-spear. to spear with. 2. O'S TirE AGE>"T-XOMiyATITE CASE. Gr ci n - 1 o bin w i y a ? n i u w o a t i a w i y a ; m., who told you ? Wlio thee told ? he me told. he told me. Gali-noa, gali -bo uut oa, tia wiya; m., this man, this This-he this-she, me told; woman, told me. G a 1 i - n 0 a unni u m a ; m., this is the man who made this. This-he tliis made. Minarig-ko bonbunkulla tetti?; w., what smote him What him struck dead ? dead ? Nukug-ko, piriwallo, puutimaito; Tlie woman — , the king — , the messenger — , m., the woman — , the king — , the messenger — , sc , smote him. W a k u n - 1 o minarig t a t a u ? ; m. , what does the crow eat ? Crow wliat eats ? M i n a r i g-k o wakun tat an?; m., what eats the crow ? What crow eats ? Nagiin-to tia pital-mau; m., the song rejoices me. Song me joy-does. Kulai-to tia bunkulla wokka-tin-to; Stick me struck up-from. m., the stick fell from above and struck me. •Note. — The line under the native words is a literal translation of them ; that which follows tlie m is tlie equivalent English. — Ed. 66 AX AUSTEALIAX LANGUAGE. 3. ON THE GENITIVE CASE. (jr j'l n - u m b a n o a ii n n i y i n a 1 ? w., whose son is this ? Whoni-belonging-to he this son? Emnioumbu ta ; gali-k o-ba bdn; m., it is mine ; tbis be- Mine it is ; this-belongs him. longs to him. Birab;in-umba, gilioumba wonnai; m., Birabau's, bis Birab;in-belonging-to, his chikl. child. Minari g-k O-ba unni? gali-ko-ba bdn; w., what does this What-belongs this? this-belongs him. belono' to? Wonta-kal bar a? En gland- kal bai*a? What-phxce-of f'?7za.s\ j they ? England - of they. m., what country are they of? they are Englishmen. AVonta -kali u bara? England-kalin bara? What-place-of C/em.j they? England - of they. in., what country women are they ? they are Englishwomen. Bug -ga i - k a 1 ; m., to-day ; lit., belonging to the present period. To-day-of. Makoro-ko-ba ta unni gdrrdg; «i., this is the blood of a Fish-belongmg-to it is this blood. fish. G-overnor- kai-kal bag; m., I belong to the Gover- Governor - place-belonging-to I. nor's place. Governor- II mba bag; on., I am the Governor's, «c., man. Governor-belonging-to I. Murrarag-ko-ba kuri-ko-ba; m., a good man's. Good-belonging-to man-belonging-to 4. ON THE DATIVE. M a k o r o bi g uw a; g a n - n u g ? give the fish; to whom? Fish thou give ; whom-for ? Piriwal-ko? Keawai; giroug bo; m., to the chief? no; Chief-for ? no, for-thee self. for yourself. Karai tia guwa emmoug takilliko; m., give me flesh to Flesh me give for-me for-to-eat. eat. Turig bi wo 11 a; gi kou g-kin-ko ; m., be off"; go to him. Away thou go him- to. Gan-kin-ko? piriwal-la-ko ; kokera-ko ; Whom-to ? chief-to ; house-to. m., to whom ? to the chief ; to the house. Wontarig? untarig; untoarig; To-what-place ? that-plaee ; that-place-there. m., to what place ? to that place; to that place there. Mulubinba-ka-ko ; En gland-ka-ko ; m., to Newcastle; to To Newcastle ; England to. Eno^land. 5. ON THE ACCUSATIVE. Gan-to bdn bunkulla tetti kulwun? w., who smote him Who him smote dead stiff. dead ? G-annug? B i r aba nn u g ; ot., whom ? Biraban. Whom ? Biraban. ILLrSTEATIA'E SENTENCES. 67 Gratoa bon tura; tura bdn bag; m., it is I who speared I him speared ; speared him I. him ; I speared him. Ivaibulla bounnoun; gannug? ot., caliber; which? Call her ; which ? U n n u g -y o g u n n o a n u g n u k u g ; m., that woman there. ■ There-there that woman. M a n k i y i k o r a u n n o a n u g ; m., do not take that. Take not that. Mara b 1 u n n o a n u g ; m., take that ; take it. Take thou that. Mara b i u n t i-k a 1, unto a-k a 1, m., take some of this, of that. Take thou hereof, there-of. Makoro tia guwa; guuun banug; in., give me a fish ; I Fish me give. give-will I-thee will give thee. Puntiman tia baran; m., I am thrown down. Throws me down. Makoro bi turulla warai-to; m., spear the fish with the Fish thou pierce spear-with. Spear. Tibbinbibuwamusketto; m., shoot the bird with the Bird thou smite musket-with. musket. Wiyella bon; wiyella binug; ot., tell him ; you tell him. Tell him ; tell thou-him. B li n k u 1 1 a tia; w o n n e ? ; m., I am struck ; where ? Smote me ; where ? Wallug tia noa wirea; m., he hit me on the head. Head me he struck.. Minarig bo bali wiyella? m., what shall you and I say ? What self thou -I say. G- a n-t 0 bounnoun turaniin? m., who will spear her ? Who her pierce-will ? G-anto unnoanug uma-niin? «?., who will make it? Who that-there make-will ? G. ON THE VOCATIVE. Ela! kaai, tan an unt i-k o ; m., I say, come hither. Hallo ! come, approach this-place-for. Wau! kaai, kaai, karakai; ?«., I say, come, make haste. Hallo ! come, come, be quick. Bougkalinu n-w al bag waita biyugbai-tako Arise-self-will I depart Father-to e mm o u g-k a-t a-ko, gatun wiy a -nun-wal, Biyug, my-to and say-will, Father, yarakai bag uma mikan ta morokoka gatuu evil I made, presence-at heaven-at and gir ou g-k in; thee. m., I will arise and go to my father, and will say unto him, Pather I have sinned against heaven, and before thee. GS AN ArSTEALIAN LANGUAGE. 7. ON THE ABLATIVE. K 0 ak i 11 an b ar a ; g^ni-kai? gan-kai-k an ; Quarrelling-now they ; wliom-from ? whoin-froiu-being ? m., the}' are now quaiTclling; about whom ? B o u n n o u n-k a i ; T a i p a m e a r i n ; m., about her ; about T — . Her-from, Taipaiiiear-from. M i n a r i g - 1 i n ? m i n a r i g-t i n-k a n ; m., about what ? don't What-from ? wliat-from-being. know. M a k o r r i n g a t u n k li r i-t i n ; m., about the fish and the men. Fish-from and men-froni. Gan-kin-bir u g unni puntimai? ot., from whom came Whom-from this messenger? this messenger ^ J e h o V a-k a-b i r u g P i r i w a 1 - 1 a-b irug , m., from .Tehovah the Jehovah-from King-from. King. AV o n t a-k a-b irug u o a ? m., from what place did he come ? What-place-froni he ? AVokka-ka-biru g moroko-ka-birug; m., from heavenabove. Up-from heaven-froai. Sydney-ka-birug ; JMulu-binba-ka-birug; m., fromSydnev; Sydney-from ; Newcastle-froni. from Newcastle. Mi n a r i g-b ir u g unnoa uma? vi., what is that made of? What-fiom that made ? K u 1 a i-b i r u g ; bras s-b irug; m., of wood ; of brass. Wood-from ; brass-from. C o p p e r-b irug garabug-ga brass; m., brass is made Copper-fiom converted brass. of copper. Turig bi wolla emmoug-kin-birug; ?;»., go away from me. Away thou move me-from. T e 1 1 a w o 1 1 a b i e m m o u g- k a t o a ; m., sit with me. Sit thou me-with. G;ln-katoa bouutoa? Tibbin-katoa ba; Whom-with she ? Tib!)in-with. m., witli whom is she? with Tibbin. M i n a r i g-k o a n o a u w a ? m., how did he go ? Wliat-by he go ? M u r r i n 0 w a i-t 0 a ; p u r r a i-k o a ; m., on board a ship ; by land . Large -canoe by ; land-by. Wont a-k a 1-1 o a ? k o r u g-k o a ; «?., which way ? through the What-phice-ljy ? ' bush-bj'. bush. Iv o k e r d a bag n w a ; m., I came by the house. House-by I came. W 0 n n u g k e w u r u b i 1 ? B i r a b a n - k i n - b a ; W.ere-at be skin-cloak ? Birabau-at w., where is the blanket? at Biraban's. "\V 0 n n o u g k e n o a ? ' S y d n e y-k a-b a n o a ; Where-at be he ? Sydney-at » he. •;«., where is he? he is at Syduey. "Won ta-wonta-ka-ba kokera? m., whereabouts is the house? Where-where-at house I ILLtrSTEATITE SENTENCES. 69 P a p a i-t a-b a Mulubinb a-ka-ba ; m., close to Newcastle. Close-at Newcastle-at Broke n-b ay-tin-to* u a t a n S y d n e y-li e a d s ; Broken-Bay-from see Sydney-heads. m., at Broken Bay is seen Sydney Heads. AV o n t a-t i n-t o ? n n t i-t i n-t o ; u n t a-t i n-t o ; What-place-from ? this-place-from ; that-place-from. m., at what jjlace ? at this place ; at that place. 8. ON THE ARTICLE. Minna n kiiri tanan-ba? OT.,howmany men are now coming? What men approach ? "Wakal-bo ta noa tana n-b a ; m.^ one man only is coming. One-self it is he approaches. B u 1 o a r a-b ota bulatananuwa;«?., only the two came. Two- self it is two approach came. K 6 1 b i r a n-b o ta bar a nukug; m., only a few women. Few-self it is they women. T i b b i n-t o noa tatan; w., the bird eats. Bird he eats. Gali-noa tibbin-to pittan; «z., this is the bird wbich drinks. This-he bird drinks. Tibbin-to noa unuug; «?., that is a bird. Bird he there. Unni-tara tibbin bi bimkulla tetti; OT.,tbese are the birds These birds thou smotest dead. you killed. Grintoa-bo ta unnoa kuri; w., thou art the man. Thou -self it is that man. Maiya-ko putti-nun tetti koa kauwil kiiri; Snake bite-will dead ut-[ may-be man. m., the snake wdll bite in order to kill the man. T i r a-k o gikoumb a-k o ; m., with his teetb. Teeth his- with. Tetti bon horse-ko witti-ma; «j., tbe horse threw him, Dead him horse violence-made. and killed him. 9. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB. "VVibbi unni kauwal katan; m., this is a high wind. Wind this great it exists. Kan wan, kauwal lag unni; on., yes, very powerful. So it is, great acts this. Kapirra bag kakilliela, katan; m., I was, I am, hungry. Hungry I was-being, am. Gan unti katan? m., who lives here ? Who this-place exists ? Bara-bo unti katan; m., they themselves dwell here. They-self this-place exist. * Note — Here Broken Baj- is spoken of both as the cause and the agent, so that the meaning is — on account of Broken Bay being the au:ent, you see Sydney Heads. The particle tin, ' from,' ' on account of,' denotes the cause, and to (ko) marks the agency. t The English expression ' in order that ' is too long to stand under and correspond with ' koa' in the above. I have, therefore, substituted for it, throughout, the Latin 'ut. 70 A>' AUSTR.VLIAX LANGUAGE. K i a k i a b a g k a k 6 u u u n n i g o r o k a n ; m., I was conqueror Conqueror I was this morning this morning. B u k k a bag k a k u 1 1 a ; m., I was very angry. Rage I Mas. B u u t o a r a n o a t e 1 1 i k a k u 1 1 a ;?;?., He is the man who Tluit-wliich-is-smote he dead was. was killed. Kakullata bag Sydney-ka taga bi ba kakiilla unta; Was I Sydney-at before thou wast at-that-place m., I was at Svdiiey before ever you were there. Tv li m b a bag k a k e u n S y d n e y-k a ; m„ to-morrow I shall be To-morrow I shall-be Sydney-iu. in Svdnev. Ivaniin-ta unni murrarJig; ?«., it will be good, this. Be-will this good. Mirka noa tetti kaniin; m., perhaps he will be dead. Perhaps he dead be-will. G a n - k e k i a k i a k a n u n ? m., who will be the victor ? ^Vho conqueror be-will ? Piriwal kanun-wal b i ; m., you will certainly be king. Chief be-wilt thou. Kabo bag kaniin Sydney-ka; w., by and by I shall be By and by I be-will Sydney-at. at Sydney. Kanun bag tarai ta yelienna-ka; m., in another Be-will I another it is moon-at. month I shall. Kaiyu kan bag; kaiyu korien bag; Able being I ; able not I. m., I am powerful ; I am not powerful. "VV i r r o b u 1 1 i-k a n b a r a g i k o u m b a ; m , they are his f ol- FoUowers they his. lowers. Tulbulleun bag kinta kan; w., I escaped, being afraid. Escaped I fear being. Pirra-pirra bara kakillin iintelH-t i n ; «z., the dancing Fatigued they becoming dance-from. js tirino' them. Wunal unni kakillin; m., the summer is coming on. Hot-season this becoming. Store-ba kakillin bountoa; m., she is now living near Store existing she. the store. Store-ka-ba kakillin bountoa; m., she is now living at Store at existing she. the store. Musket tia katala Awaba-ka; in., I had a musket at Musket me existed Awaba-at. Lake Macquarie. Kinta bag katala, yakita keawai; w., I used to be afraid, Afraid I existed, now not. but now I am not. Katala bag li a i a t e a-k a ; m„ I used to live at Raiatea. Existed I Baiatea-at. Unta bag katala yuraki M — ka; w., I lived formerly There I existed formerly M — at. at M — . Piriwal bag kakilli-kolag; m., I am now going to be Chief 1 to-be- towards kin<i' Korien kakilli-nua yantikatai; ?»., I will not be so for Not be-will so for ever, ever. ILLrSTEATIVE SEXTEKCES. 71 Moronnoalcakilli-nuutettikorien; Live he be-will dead not. m., lie is going to live for ever and never die. AV i b b i k a k i 11 i 1 i n w a r e a ; m., the wind is lessening. Wind now-continuing-to-be less. G-atoa-bo, yaki-ta-bo, unti-bo; I myself, instantly, this self same place. w., I myself, at thLs very place and instant. Kakilhin bali-bountoa; m., she and I live together. Live-together we two-she. Gin toa-bo ka-pa piriwal kakilliko; m., you ought to Thou-thyself oughtest chief to be. be chief. Takoai bag tettikaiaunbin-nun bdn?; In-what-manner I dead let-be- will him? in., how shall I cause his death ? Kakillai koa ball muroi; »?., I wish you and me to To-continue-to-be ut we two quiet ; continue at peace. Kau wil-koa- pore gore yards; m., I want it three yards long. That-may-be long three ,, ; Munninoa katea kan; w., he is sick again. Sick he is-become again. Yanoa;munni koa noa katea-kiin; wj.,do not; lest he be Do-not ; sick lest he should-be. sick. Munni kanim bag ba; m., if I should be sick. Sick be-will I if. Gan-ketetti kamai-ga? w., who had almost been dead? Who dead like-to-have-become? Tettibag kamai-ga; vi., I was almost dead. Dead I had-like-to-have-been. Piriwal bi ba-k a-p apital gaiya bag ka-pa; Chief thou if-hadst-been joy then I had-had. m., if you had been king, I should have been glad. Ka-pa bi ba unta gnrokan-ta, ua pa gaiya banug; Hadst-been thou if there this-morning, seen had then I-thee. m., if you had been there this mornuig, 1 should have seen you. K o r u n k a u w a, t li n k i y i k o r a ; w., be still, do not cry. Quiet be wail not. Kauwa, bi tetti kakilliko; m., yes, you are to die. Yes, thou dead for-to-be. Kakilla nura pital kakilliko; wj., be at peace one with Be ye peace for-to-be. the other. Moron bon ka-miinbilla; m. , let him live. Alive him permit-to-be. Ka-munbi-nun banug piriwal kakilliko; Permit-will I-thee chief for-to-be. m., I will let you be king. Piriwal bi katea-ka; m., be king again. Chief thou be-again. Piriwal bdn ka-miin bi yikora;OT., prev'ent his being Chief him permit-to-be thou not. chief. 72 AX AUSTBALIAN LANGUAGE. 10. THE COXJUGATIOX OF THE ACTIA'E VERB. GannugbuukuUa? unni bon yc ; w., wlio was beaten? Whom struck ? this him be. this is he. Minarig-tin biloa gala bimkulla?; m., why did tliat What-from he-thee that struck? person beat you ? Unni b ulun b vi n k u 1 1 a n o a ; m., these are the two he struck. These them-two struck he. Tanan tia, wolla-wolla; biintcin tia butti kirrin-kirrin! Approach me, move-move, beats me more pain pain. m., come to me, make haste ; I am beaten more and in pain. Gan-to bin bunknlla? wiyella bi tia; mupai yikora; Who thee struck ? tell thou me ; secret not. on., who beat you ? tell me ; do not conceal it. Gali-noa tia biinkulla; m., this is he who struck me. This-he me struck. M i n a r i g-k o biloa biinkulla? m., with what did he strike What- with he-thee struck ? you ? Mattarro gikoumba-ko; m., with his hand. Hand -with his- with. Kotarro noa tia biinkulla; «?., he struck me with a cudgel. Cudgel-with he me struck. Kora koa binug biim-ba? «?., you ought to have beaten him. Not ut thou-him struck had. Biiwil koa bon, kaiyu korien bag; That-might-strike ut him, able not I. 7)1., I wish to beat him, but am unable. Kotara bi tia guwa buwil koa bon bag; Cudgel thou me give to-strike ut him I. m., give me a cudgel that I may beat him. Bum-ba bo ta bon bag, wonto bag-ba kinta kan kakulla ; Struck-had surely him I, but I fear being was. m., I should certainly have struck him, but I was afraid. Biinkeun bon bag; m., I have beaten him, sc, this morning. Struck -have him I. B II n n u n b on bag k a-b o ; m.,1 will beat him by-aud-by. Strike-will him I by-and-by. Bunkillaiban kora nura; m., do not be striking one Striking-be not ye. another. Bunkillin bon bara y aki ta ; j«., they are striking him now. Ai'e-striking him they now. BunkiUiela bon bag, tanan bi ba uwa; Was-striking him I, approach thou came. m., I was striking him when you came. B u n t a 1 a tia bara av o n n a i b a g b a ; Struck me tliey child I m., they beat me when I was a child. Waita-kolag noa b ii n kill i-ko lag; vi., he is gone a- Depart-towards lie to-strike-towards. fighting. B li n k i 1 1 i 1 i n noa wheat; m., he is thrashing wheat. Is-continuing-to-strike he wheat. _ ILLUSTEATITE SENTENCES. 73 Biinkillilia binug; «?., beat liim; tlirash it. Continue-to-strike thou-him. G a n - b o n u r a b ii n k i 1 1 a n ? in., who are fighting with you ? Who-self ye strike-reciprocally ? Biiukillala bara-bo bara-bo ; m., they fought amongst Fought they-self they-self. themselves. Biinkillala bali-noa Bulai wonnai bali-noa ba; Struck-reciprocally we-two-he Bulai children we-two-he when, m., when Bulai and I were children, we fought with one another. Biinkilla-nun bula; m., the two are going to fight. Strike-recipi-ocally-will the-two. Yanoa; bunkillai ban kora; cease fighting. Let be ; striking-reciprocally be not. Tanoa; bunki yikora; m., do not strike. Let be; strike not. Bi'mkillai-kin bali-noa kiimba; w., to-morrow he audi Strike-each-will we-two-he to-morrow will fight a duel. Takounta-ke bara biinkilla-nun? m., when will they fight? At-what-time they fight-will ? k VL m b a-k e n-t a ; m., the day after to-morrow. "Wait a-ko lag bag biinkilliko musket- to; Depart-towards I for-to-strike musket-with. m., I am now going to shoot with a musket. Yakoai tia buwil koa bdn bag; m., take care that I How me may-strike ut him I. may beat him. Wiyella bdn buwil koa bon; «?., command him to beat Tell him strike %it him. him. Buwil bag Pattynug; m., I wish to beat Patty. May-beat I Patty. Tari bi nuti-nun, b tin te a-k tin koa bin; Do-not thou wait-will, should-sti-ike lest thee. m., do not wait lest you be struck. Biin-nun noa tia ba turulla gaiya binug; Strike-will he me if pierce then thou-him. m., when he strikes me, then spear him ; or, if he, &c. Bvimmai-ga tia, wonto bag ba murra ; Struck-has-nigh me, but I ran. on., 1 should have been struck, but I ran away. Keawaran tia bum-ba-ka-pa bag-ba unti bo; Not me struck-had-been I-if at this self same place. m., I should not have been struck, had I remained here. Grali-ta tia tetti biim-ba; ««., this might have killed me. This me dead struck-had. Turig, binug b u nkea yakita; «?., go, strike him agaiu now. Away thou-him strike-again now. Wiya, bdn bag biim-ba, biim-ba gaiya bi-tia; Say him I struck- had, struck - liad then thou-me ; VI., if I had struck him, then you would have struck me. Yari bdn buntea k a nu n, ot., prevent hisbeingbeatenagain. Prevent him strike-again be-will. 74 AN AUSTBALIAN LANGUAGE. B u m m u n b i a b i - t i a ; m., jou. permitted me to be beaten. Permitted -to-slrike thou-me. B vi m m u n b i 1 1 i n b o n bag; m.,1 am permitting him to strike. To-strike-permitting liim I. Bii in m u n b i y i k o r a b o n ; m., do not permit him to strike. To-strike-permit not him. B u m m li 11 b i 1 1 a b i -t i a b d n ; m., let me strike him. To-strike-permit tliou-me him. K a m u 1 1 a b i-t i a b li m m a r a b u n b ia- k u n k o a t i a ; To-be-cause thou-me some-one-shoukl-strike lest me ; ;«., protect me, lest anyone should beat me. Bunk ilia nura; ?«., light on. Continue-to-strike ye. W a k a 1 1 o b i n u g b u w a, ma b li n t e a - k a t i a ; Once thou-hiiu strike, do strike-again me. m., smite him once, smite me again. B XI m m u n b i 1 1 a b i n u g, b u w i 1 k o a n o a t i a, Permit-to-strike thou-him, may-strike vt he me. m., permit him to strike, that I may be beaten by him. Yakoai, biiwil koa barun bag; ?«., take care that I beat Mind, may-strike ut them I. them. Kinta kora bi; keawaran bin bun -nun; Fear not thou ; not thee strike-will. m., fear not ; thou shalt not be beaten. Kora koa bi-tia bun tan? m., why do not you beat me ? Not lit thou-me strike ? M a, b u w a bi-tia, b i n u g (a challenge) ; m., do strike me, him. Do, strike thou-me, thou-him. B u n k i a b i n u g ; m., strike him, sc, to-morrow morning. Strike thou-him. B u n k i 1 1 i - 1 i n n o a m u r r a ; m., he ran away because o£ the Striking-from he ran. fifhtintr. *^ ^ ^ . Bunkillai bara yanti katai; ;«., they are always fighting Striking they then for ever. amongst themselves. K a u w a 1 u n n o a b li n k i 1 1 i - k a n-n e ; m., that is a great thing Great that striking-thing. to strike with. IT n n o a - 1 a n o a b x'l n k i 1 1 i - k a n ; ot., that is the striker. That he striking-being. Gali-noa bunkilli-kan-to tia biinkulla; This - he striking-being me struck. m., this is the striker who struck me. B u n k i - y e bara u n n o a k u r i ; m., they are the fighters. Fighter they those men. "W a i t a - k 0 1 a g bag b I'l n k i 1 1 a i - g e 1 - k o 1 a g ; Depart about I striking-phme-towards. m., I am going to the field of battle. Biintoara bag gali-birug bdn; m.,1 was struck by That-which-is-struck I this - from him. him. Bun kill i-t in bag katan unti; «?, I remain here because Striking-from I remain here, of the fif'ht. ILLUSTEATIVE SENTEKCES. '75 M u n n i g e e ii k a p a i y i n b u n ]v i 1 1 i - b i r u g ; Sick we siifFeriiig striking-from. m., we are ill tliTout!;li tightinj?. G a 1 i t i a n o a b u n t o a r o b li n k u 1 1 a ; m., this is tbe wounded This me lie the-woumled struck. man who struck me. AVonnug-ke bar a biintoara? m., where are those who Where they that-be-struck. were struck ? Buntoarin bara tetti kakulla; m., they died of their Wouncled-from they dead were. wounds. 11. CONJUGATION OP SOME OTHER VERBS. Minarig bi uman? warai? w., what thing do you make? Wliat thou makest? spear. a spear? Gran- to unni uma? gali; /;«., who made this? this person Who this made ? this. did G a n - 1 o t i a moron u m a - n li n ? on., who will save me alive ? Wlio me alive make-will ? G a n - 1 o u n n 0 a p u n n a 1 uma? J e h o v a - k o ; Who that sun made ? Jehovah, w., who made the sun ? Jehovah did. M u m i n w i n t a kakulla, uma n o a b a r u n n a k i 1 1 i-ka n ; Blind some were, made he them seers ; m., some were blind, he made them to see. Umabunbi yikora, tetti koa noa katea-kiin; Permit-to-do not, dead lest he become ; 711., do not let him do it, lest he die. TJ m a i - g a - 1 a bag unni y a r a k a i ; m., T had almost spoiled Like-to-have-done I this bad. this. Wiyella bou uma-uwilkoa u n noa; w?., tell him to makeit. Tell him may-do ^d that. "Wi yella bon upa-uwil koa unnoa; Tell him to-do ut that ; on., tell him to u?e it; or, to make it act. Soap u m a t 0 a r a k i p a i-b i r u g ; on., soap is made of fat. Soap made fat-from. Upulli-gel k u lai-t a-b iru g ; m., the acting place of wood ; Doing-place wood-from. a wooden table. Warai bag umullin; m., I am making a spear. Spear I am-now-making. Mirrin bag upullin; on., I am sharpening or putting a Point I am-now-doing. point. Wonnug-ke mirrin wirritoara? on., where is that which Where be pomt that-which-is-done ? jg pointed. TJmatoara kiimba-birug; on., that which was made That-which-is-done yesterday-from. yesterday. 76 AIT AUSTEALIA.X LAXGUAGE. 12. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ' TO GO.' Wonta-kolag bi uwan? Syclney-kolag. Whitlier-towards thou movest? Sydney-towards. »«., where are you going? to Sydney. "VV o n t a r i g b i u \v a n ? u n t a r i g ; 8 y d n e y - k a - k o. To-what-place thou movest ? to that place ; Sydney-for m., to what place do you go ? to that place ; to Sydney. Wontabirugbi uwa? m., from what place did you come ? What-plaee from thou movedst ? Koiyog-tin bag uwa; m., I started from the camp. Camp-fi-om I moved. Kaiyog-birug bag uwa, m., I came out from the camp. Camp-from I moved. W i y a, bag u w a - n ii n ? m., may I go ? Say, I move-will ? Keawaran wal bi uwa-nun; w., you shall not go. Not shalt thou move-wilt. Tanoa, uwayikora; «?., do not go. Let be, move not. Wiya, bi tan an uwa-nun? m., will you come ? Say, thou approach move-will? Wiya, bi wait a uwa-nun? m., will you go ? Say, thou depart move-will ? Wiya, b i w a i t a u w o 1 1 a ? m., do you wish to go ? Say, thou depart move ? Wiya, b i t a n a n u w o 11 a ? m., do you wish to come ? Say, thou approach move ? Wiya, ball uwolla; ?«., let us, you and me, go. Say, thou-I move ? W a i t a g c e n uwolla w i 1 1 i m u 1 1 i - k o 1 a g ; m., let us go a Depart we move to-hunt-about. hunting. W o n n e n g e e n uwolla? g i a k a i •, in., which way shall we Which-way we move ? this M'ay. go ? this way. W 0 n n e n k a n ? m., don't know ; or, which way can it be ? Which-way being ? Wa-uwil bali Pakai kabo; m., I want you to go Avith Move-may I-thou Pakai by-and-by. me to Pakai by-and-by. Tanoa; uwa-niin bo-ta bag; m., no ; I will go by myself. Let be ; move-will self I Wiya, b a 1 i-b a g w a-u w i 1 ; m., I wish you to go with me. Say, we-two-I move-may. E-e, wait a bali; waitti-ljig bar a; Yes, depart we-two-I ; departed they. m., yes, I will go with you ; they are gone. Yurig bula uwolla, garabo ka-ko bag wait a; Away ye-two move, sleep for-to-be I depart; in., go away you two ; I am going to sleep. Waitc4 ka-ba bountoa parkai; m., she is gone to the Departed is she southward. southward. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES. 77 Waita-wal bag uwa-nun; m., I am determined I will go . Depart-shall I move-will. Waita koa bag; mimai yikora; on., I must go ; do not Depart ut I ; detain not. detain me. "Winta bara waita uwa-niin; «?., some of them will go. Part they depart move-will. "Waita * w a-n lin noa ba, waita gaiya geen; Depart move-will he if, depart then we. OT., when he gooH, we will go. Wonta puunal kakulla, uwa gaiya nura ba? Where sun was come then ye ? m., what time was it when you came ? Uwolliela noa b a, nugurrurwa gaiya bdnuoa; Moving-was he met then him he. m., while he was w^alking, he met him. Wiya, bi uwa-keiin k o iy (5 g-ko 1 ag? m., have you been Say, thou moved-hast canip-towards ? to the camp ? Keawai, kiimba bag Avaita wokkin; ?»., I have not, but Xo, to-morrow I depart move. to-morrow I shall. Kabo, waita w a-n u n bag; «?., by-and-by I shall go. By-and-by, depart move-will I. Kurrikai-kurrikai-ta katan uwolliko gaol- Quick it is for-to-move gaol - k 0 1 a g , k e a w a r ci n w i 1 1 u g - k o ; towards not for-to-return. m., it is very easy to go to goal, but not so easy to get out again. AV a i t a bag u w a-n tin tottog gurrulliko. To-depart I move-will news for-to-hear. on., I will go and hear the news. Pital ma- pa bi-tia ba, keawai gaiya bag wa-pa; Joy done-had thou-me, not then I moved-had. m., if you had loved me, I would not have gone. Wa-munbilla tia Sydiiey-kol ag; in , permit me to goto Permit-to-move me Sydney-towards. Sydney. "W a- m li n b i - n u n b a n u g ; m., I will let you go. Permit-to-move-will I-thee. Yari bi wa-nun, turea-kiin-koa bin kiiri-ko bara; Do-not thou move-wilt, pierce-should-lest thee men they. m., do not go, lest you should be speared by the men. Keawai banug wa - munbi-niin ; ?«., I will not permit Not I-thee permit-to-move-will. you to o'O. U w a - t a noa y a n t i - 1 a p u n n a 1 b a polo g-k a 1 1 e u n ; Came he at-the-time sun sinking-was. m., he came just as the sun was setting. ' Note. — The u is often omitted when another verb takes the yo\crnnient, forming it into an auxiliary ; tut as a principal verb the u is general!)' retained. 1 3. COXJUGATIOX OF OTilKR tee; K u r r a w u u unn i y i ir ]v u 1 1 i n ; m., Clear this breaking (i as the clouds), P. 6 r -kail e ii n I t i .a w o n n a i e in mourn ba: Droijped-has nie child mine. 78 AN ArSTRALTAN LANGUAGE. K e a w ii r a n n 0 a w a-p a y a n t i-t a p u n ii a 1 - b a p <) 1 o g - Not he moved-had at-the-tiiue siiii sinking- k a 1 1 e ti n ; was. «?.., Tie had not come, when the sun was setting. T a n a n b i w o 1 1 a y a n t i - 1 a p u n n a 1 - b a p o 1 (i g-k a 1 1 i n ii n ; Approach thou move at-the-time sun sinking will-be. m., come at sunset. the weather is clearing up. 7)1., unto me my child is born. Tiirran unni; minnug? 711., that is broken; what is? Broken this ; M'hat. T i i r - b u g - g a unni; g a n t o unni t i i r - b u g - g a ? Broken this ; who this broken ? 771., this is broken by some person ; who broke it? T i i r b u r r e a unni; y a k o a i ? w i b b i - k 0 ; Broken this ; how ? wind-for. «?., this is broken ; how? by the wind. W i b b i - k 0 t i a p 6 r b ii r r e a hat e m m o u m b a ; Wind me dropped hat my. ;»., the wind has blown off my hat. "W" i w i , t i i r k u 1 1 e a - k ii n - k 0 a spade; w., mind, lest the Mind, break-should-lest spade. spade break. AViwi, t i i r-b u g- ge a-ktin-koa bi unnoa spade; Mind, break-shouldst-lest thou that spade. 711., mind, lest you break that spade. W i w i , t i i r b u r r c a - k u n - k 0 a b i unnoa spade g a 1 i Mind, break-shouldst-lest thou that spade that kulai-to; })i., mind, lest you break the spade with that stick, stick -with. Tiir-bng-ga-pa bag ba, minnugbanun gaiya bara-tia? Broken-had I, what act-will then they-nie '! 7)1., had I broken it, what would they have done to me ? Minnug ballinbi? wiyelllu bag; What about-doing thou ? talking I. 7)1., what are you doing? I am talking. Minnug b a b i n ? m., what is the matter with you ? What do-to thee ? Minnug b a n ii n g a i y a b i 1 o a ? m., what will he do to you ? What do-will then he-thee? Minnug b a n li n b i b u g-g a i ? m., wliat will you do to-day ? What do-will thou to-day ? Minnug baniin? gatdg; w., I don't know; nothing (an idiom). What do-will ? nuthing. P i t a I b a 1 i k a k i 1 1 a n ; ?;?., we two rejoice together. Joy we-two are-being. ILLL'STRATITE SEXTEJTCES. 79 Minnug balli-ka-Ice? m., of what use is it ? o£ wliat profit r^ What do-foi--to-be ? Minnug balli-kolag noa uwa-iiun? m., what is h& What to-be-about-to-do she move-will ? goin"' about ? Na-nun bountoa biyugbai bounnouuba; w., to see See-will she father her. her father. Kati! katiii! t ett i-ba-b unbea tia ;?«., alas ! alas ! lam Alas ! alas ! to-die-permitted me. left to die. Tetti ba biinbilla bou; w., let him die; (/vans. verb). Dead permit him. Tetti b-ug-gulla bon; gan-to? m., kill him ; who shall? Dead force him ; Avho ? Tetti ba bunbi-nun banug; m. I will let you die. Dead permit-will I-thee. Tetti burri-niin banug m., 1 will cause you to die, as by Dead cause-will I-thee. poisou, &c. Tetti bug-gauiiu banug; m.,1 will compel you to die; Dead force-will I-thee. murder vou. Minnug b a- uwilkoa ball b(5n? m., what shall you What may-do lit thou-I him ? and I do to him ? Tanoa, te tti-b ea-kiin-k o a n o a, w?., let alone, lest he die. Let be, die-should lest he. Birrikillia noa untoa tetti bauwil koa noa; Lie he at-that-place dead may-be i{t he. m., he may (I wish him to) lie there until he dies. Tetti burrilleiin bag; ju., I have destroyed myself; I have Dead cause-self I. killed m^'self. W. coxJuaATioN or the tebb ' to speak.' Ganto wiyan? galiko, gali-tard; «z., who speaks ? this Who speaks ? this, these. man does ; these. Wiyan gali clock-ko; ?«., the clock strikes. Speaks this clock. Wiyan k u r i-k o ; w i y a n t i b b i n-t o ; m., the man speaks ; Speaks man ; speaks bird. the bird sink's. AV i y a n b u 1 1 o c k-k o ; m., the bullock roars. Speaks bullock. Wiya-uwilbitia yakoai bara-ba wiya bin; Tell-may thou-me how they told thee. m., I wish you to tell me how they spoke to you. Wiya gaiya gearun bara yanti; ma; w., they spoke to Told then them they so; do. us ill bravado. Ga binug wiya? wiya b(5n b a g; m., did you tell him? Is it thou-him told ? told him I. X told him. Ganto bin wiya? yitarabullo tia wiya; Who thee told ? such-a-one me told. /«., who told you? that man did. 80 AN ATJSTRALIAN LAKGITAGE. Gan unnug Aviyellin yc5g? m., who is talking out there ? Wlio there talking there ? G ;i nil u g hi w i y j'l n ? m., whom do you tell ? to whom do you Whom thou speakest ? speak ? Emmoug? galin? baruii? m.,me? us two? them? Me ? US-two ? them ? K li r i-k o-b a wiyellabitia; m., speak to me in the black's Man-l)elonging-to speak thou-me. lano^uage. "Wiyea-ka bitia; kara tia wiyella; m., tell me again ; Speak-again thou-me ; slowly me tell. speak distinctly. "Wonnug borin ball wiyella? m., what shall we two Where first thou-I speak ? first talk about ? Kabo-kabo, wiya-wiyelli koa ba g; «?., stay, stay, that I Presentljs talk-talk-may vt I. may have some talk. Wonnen bagwiyanun unni yitara? m., how am I to Which-way I speak-will this name ? call this? T a k 0 u n t a b i 1 o a w i y a ? m., when did he tell you ? At-what-time he-thee told '? W i y a n b a n u g g a r o k i 1 1 i-k o ; m.,1 command thee to arise. Tell I-thee for-to-arise. Unta bali-bi w iy ellala y ur aki ; m., this is where Ave There thou-I conversed formerly. conversed to'i'ctlier. Kaiyalleiin gali clock wiy elli-biru g; «?., theclockhas Ceased-has this clock talking-from. done striking. Takouii-ta ke binug wiya-nun; when will you tell At-what-time be thou-him tell-will ? him ? Wiya-nun binug b a, wiya-nun g a i y a t i a ; Tell-will thou-him when, tell-will then me. m., when you tell him, let me know. 15. PROMISCUOUS SELECTIONS. Patin gali koiwon-to; ;«., it is raining. Urop this rain. Kabo-ka-ta tura-niin gaiya bin; m., by-and-by you will By-and-by pierce-will then thee be speared. Bulka-ka ba noa b utti k an-ka-ba; OT.,he is on horseback. Back he beast - at. K e a w a i k o 1 a g bag g u t a n ; m., 1 am not going to give. Not towards I give. G u k i 1 1 a ball u n n o a ; m., let you and me give one Give-reciprocally thou-I that another, i.e., exchange. Kora koa napal uwaii kuri-katoa? 7»., why do not women Not vt women move men - with ? go with the men ? Yanoa, yirriyirri ka-ke; m., because it is a sacred concern. Let-be, sacred is. Pita] k 0 r i e n bag s h o e - 1 i n ; ?«., I am displeased with the Joy not I shoe-from. shoe. P u 1 1 i g 0 w i - k o - b a ; vi.,a strange language ; a foreign tongue. Voice strange-belonging-to. ILLUSTEATITE SEJfTENCES. 81 Minarig-tin bi kottan untoa-tin? m., what think you What-from thou thinkest tliat-from ? of that ? Kottalliela bag tokoi-ta tetti bag ba ka-pa; Thinking-was I kist-night dead I should-have-been. m., I thought I should have died last night. Tirag bag katan; m., I am awake. Awake I remain. Tiriig bug-gulla bon bougkulli koa no a; Awake compel him to-arise tit he. m., make him awake and get up. K onein-t a unni nakilli-ko, m., this is pretty to look at. Pretty this for-to-see. Turi wiyelli-ko; «?., to swear the truth; to speak convincingly. Truth for-to-speak. Yuna bo ta bag wiyanun tuloa; ot.,I will certainly speak Certain I speak-will straight. the truth. Minarig-tin nura tia bukka buggan? m., why do ye What-from ye me to-rage compel ? enrage me ? Minarig-tin nura tia bukka katan? w., whyareyeen- What-from ye me to-rage remain ? raged at me ? Kamullala noa yantin-birug umulli-birug; Ceased he all-from doing-from m., he rested from all his work. Kauwa, wiyalleiin bag gat o a-b o ;?«., yes, I was talking Yes, talked -reflexively I I-self. to myself. Gintoa-bo ba ;?/;., do as you like ; (an idiom). Thou-thyself act. Nauwa wirroban boiintoa-tia ba; /«., look while she fol Look follows she-me. lows me. N a k i 1 1 a n b a 1 i ; ;«., we two are looking one at the other. Look-reciprocally thou-I. Nakillcun bag gatoa-bo nak alii- gel-la; Saw-recijjrocally I my-self looking-place-at.' m., I saw myself in the looking-glass. Minarig-tin bon bunkulla? kulla noa bukka barig; What-from him struck ? because he angiy always. m., why was he beaten? because he is always angry. Tanti, ban kora; «?., do not do so. Just so, act not. Miimbilla tia galea; miimbitoara unni; Lend me that ; that-which-is-lent this. 771., lend me that ; it is lent. Mumbea bag tarai-kan; w«., I have lent it to another. Lent-have I another-being. Grumai-ga bin unni won to bi ba keawai man-ba*; Given-had thee this where thou not taken-hadst. m., it would have been given you, but you would not have it. *NoTE. — It is extremely difficult to ascertain whether this particle should be spelt Pa or Ba ; in the conjugations of the verb it is spelled Pa. But raan3' natives saj' it should be Ba, whilst others affirm that it ouj'ht to be Pa. ^2 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. Tunug iinni Turke v-ko-ba ; ?«., this is a Turkey stone. Stone this Turkey-belongiiig-to. Kiiri unni Turkey- kai; m., this is a Turkish man, a Turk. Man this Turkey-of. Tirriki-ko tia wiiina; w., the flame burns me. Red me burns. Makoro guwa, gatun karai, gatun tibbin, gatun Fish give and flesh, and fowl, and kokoiu, ta-uwil koa bag pitta-uwil koa bag; water cat-may vt I drink-may ut I. m., give fish, flesh, fowl, and water, that I may eat and drink. (B.) THE KEY. [THE ORIGINAL TITLE-PAGjl.., A KEY TO THE STRUCTUEE OF THE ABORIGINAL LANGUAGE; BEING AN ANALYSIS OP THE PARTICLES USED AS AFFIXES, TO EOEAI THE YAEIOUS MODIFICATIONS OE THE UTERES ; SHEWING THE ESSENTIAL POWEES, ABSTRACT EOOTS, AND OTHER PECULIARITIES OF THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN BY THE ABORIGINES IX THE YICINITT OF HUNTER EIVEE, LAKE MACQUAEIE, ETC., NEW SOUTH WALES : TOGETHER WITH COMPAEISONS OF POLYNESIAN AND OTHER DIALECTS. By L. E. THEELKELD. SYDNEY: THE BOOK FOE PRESENTATION AT THE ROYAL NATIONAL EXHIBITION, LONDON, 1S51, UNDER THE AUSPICES OF HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT. PRINTED WITH COLONIAL TYPE CAST BY A. THOMPSON, AND BOUND WITH COLONIAL MATERIAL. PRINTED BY KEMP AND FAIRFAX, LOWER GEORGE-STREET. 1850. THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE. This work was intended to be a paper for the Ethnological Society of London, to accompany some very interesting researches and observations made by a friend, relative to the customs and language of the aborigines of this colony. Through his making an inquiry respecting the meaning and difference of the words ba and ka, either of which can only be rendered into our language by the verb to he in some one or other of its modifica- tions, I was led to the tracing out of the various meanings of many particles of a similar description, so that the work swelled to a size much larger than was) anticipated. It was, therefore, thought advisable to print the work in its present form, especi- ally as a public announcement asks for " A book, printed with colonial type, filled with colonial matter, and bound and orna- mented with colonial materials," for presentation at the lioyal National Exhibition, London, 1851. The subject is purely colonial matter, namely, the language of the aborigines, now all but extinct ; and the other conditions have been strictly attended to, as far as the circumstances of the colony would allow, the paper alone being of English manufac- ture. The author was the first to trace out the language of the aborigines, and to ascertain its natural rules ; his " Australian Grammar" was published here in the year 1834, under the aus- pices of his late Majesty's Government, by the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, which generously carried the work through the press free of expense. His late Majesty King William IV. was graciously pleased to accept a copy of the book, and direct it to be placed in his library. Copies were likewise forwarded to several public institutions in England and elsewhere, where, it is presumed, they may still be found, — a testimony against the contemptible notion entertained by too many, who flatter them- selves that they are of a higher order of created beings than the aborigines of this land, whom they represent as " mere baboons, having no language but that in common with the brutes !"; and who say, further, that the blacks have " an innate deficiency of intellect, and consequently are incapable of instruction." But if the glorious light of the blessed Gospel of God our Saviour had never shed its divine lustre around the British Crown, or never penetrated the hearts of the people with its vivifying power, the aborigines of Albion's shores might still have remained in the state described by the eloquent Cicero, in one of his epistles to his friend Atticus, the Roman orator ; for he says, " Do not obtain your slaves from Britain, because they are so stupid and utterly incapable of being taught that they are not Jit to form a part of the household of Atticus ! " 88 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. Reminiscences of liiraban. An aboriginal of this part of the colony was my almost daily companion for many years, and to his intelligence I am principally indebted for mnch of my knowledge i-especting the structure of the language. Biraban was his native name, meaning 'an eagle-hawk,' l)ut the English called him M'Gill. His likeness was taken at my residence, Lake Macquarie, in 1839, by Mr. Agate, and will be found in the "Nari-ativeof the United States' Exploring Expedition," commanded by Charles Wilkes, U.S.N. The "Narrative," vol. II, page 2.5.3, says : — " At Mr. Threlkeld's, Mr. Hale saw M'Gill, who was reputed to be one of the most intelligent natives ; and his portrait was taken by Mr. Agate. His physiognomy was more agreeable than that of the other blacks, being less strongly marked with tlie peculiarities of his race ; he was about the middle size, of a dark-chocolate colour, with fine glossy black hair and whiskers, a good forehead, eyes not deeply set, a nose that might be described as aquiline, although depressed and broad at the base. It was very evident that M'Gill was accustomed to teacli his native language, for when he was asked the name of anything he pro- nounced the word very distinctly, syllable by syllable, so that it was impossible to mistake it. Tiiough he is acquainted with the doctrines of Christianity and all the comforts and advantages of civilization, it was impossible for him to overcome his attachment to the customs of his peopjle, and he is always a leader in the corrobborees and other assemblies." Both himself and Patty, his wife, were living evidences that there Avas no " innate deficiency of intellect " in either of them. He had been brought up from his childhood in the Military Barracks, Sj'dney, and he under- Stood and spoke the English language well. He was much attached to us, and faithful to a chivalrous extreme. We never were under apprehensions of liostile attacks when M'Gill and his tribe encamj>ed nigh our dwelling. A murderous black, named 'Bumble-foot,' from his infirmitj', and ' Devil- devil,' from his propensities, had attempted to murder a European by chopping off the man's head with a tomahawk, and had nearly effected this; but the man recovered, and I had to appear at a Court of Justice as a witness ; this dis^jleased ' Bumble-foot, ' and he avowed openly, in the usual manner, that he would slay me in the bush at the first opportunity ; this came to the ears of M'Gill, who immediately applied to me for the loan of a fowling-piece 'to go and shoot that fellow for his +hi'eat'; this was, of course, refused. M'Gill was once present with me at the Criminal Court, Sydney, assisting as interpreter, when he was closely examined by Judges Burton and Willis, in open Court, on the trial of an aboriginal for murder, 1834, in order that M'Gill might be sworn as interpreter in the case ; but, though his answers were satisfactory to the general questions proposed to hina by the Judges, yet, not understanding the nature of our oath in a Court of Justice, he could not be sworn. Patty, his wife, was pleasing in her person, "black but comely, " kind and affectionate in her disposition, and evidenced as strong a faculty of shrewdness in the exercise of her intellectual powers over M'Gill as many of the fairer daughters of Eve, who, without appearing to trespass on the high prerogative of their acknowledged lords, manage their husbands according to their own sovereign will ; this might perhaps have arisen from the circumstance that M'Gill, once, when intoxicated, had shot at his wife, although he deeply deplored this when he became sober ; the injury sustained was not much, but ever afterwards he treated her with much affection, which appeared to be reciprocal. It was a romantic scene to behold the haiapy pair, together B I R A B A N (McGI LL). OF McGlLl. WAS TAKEN IN PeNCIL BY Mr. AgaTE OF U. S. Exploring Expedition in 1839. REPRODUCED BY HEUOTYPE. TUE KEY. 89 with many others, on ti moonlight night, under the hhie canopy of heaven, preparing for the midnight ball to be held on the green sward, with no other covert than a growing bush, with none other blaze than that from the numerous fires kindle<l around the mystic ring in which to trip the light fantastic toe. Then they might be seen reciprocally rouging each other's cheek with pigment of their o^^^l preparing, and imparting fairness to their sable skin on the neck and forehead with the purest pipeclay, until their countenances beamed with rapturous delight at each other's charms. The cumbrous garments of the daj- were laid aside, and in all the majesty of nature they danced as Britons did in days of old. Orf points of aboriginal honor M'Gill was exceedingly sensitive. "I must go," said he one da^^, " to stand my punishment as a man of honor, though I have done no wrong." The hostile message had been duly sent, and faithfully delivered bj- the seconds ; one of these was an elderly female, who made her verbal communication with all the accustomed vituperation of daring challenge to the offended party ; it was duly accepted ; the weapons named, the cudgel, shield, and spear ; the time was appointed, a certain day when the sun was one quarter high ; the place, a plain in a certain well-kno-mi vicinity attached to our dwelling. Messengers were despatched to gather in the distant tribes, and on the mountain-tops were seen the signal-fires announcing their approach to witness the affair of honor. When the tribes had assembled, a mutual explanation ensued betwixt the parties, and the evening dance and supper of game peacefully tei-minated the business of the day. The course usually pursued when matters take a hostile form is this : the offending party is the first to stoop and offer his head for his antagonist to strike with his weapon ; and, if not disabled or killed by the blow, he rises from his bending posture, shaking the streaming blood from his bushy hair, and then his opponent fairly and honorably bends forward his head, and presents it in return to receive his blow ; and so this reciprocally continues until the assembled parties and the combatants themselves are satisfied. But should either strike dishonorably on the temple, thus showing an intention to kill, or in anj' other way than on the fairly offered cranium of his antagonist, a shower of well-directed spears would instantly be sent against the cowardly assailant, who should dare to be guilty of such a breach of the laws of honor. M'Gill informed me that formerly it was a custom amongst certain of the northern tribes that, when the first blow actually killed the person, the spectators would roast and eat the body of hun who so noblj^ fell in the cause of honor, if he were a young man in good condition of body ; as a matter of taste, M'Gill expressed himself dissatisfied mth the custom, and stated that he thought it had fallen into desuetude, as it tended to no good purpose but to check the spirit of duelling. Picturesque or alarming as in many instances these scenes were, all have for ever passed away, and the once numerous actors, who used to cause the woods to echo with their din, now lie mingled with the dust, save some few solitary beings who here and there still stalk abroad, soon, like their ancestors, to become as " a tale that is told." 90 AN AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGE. THE KEY: BEING An Analysis of the Particles used as Affixes. At tlic time when my " Australian Grammar " was published in Sydney, in the year 1834, circumstances did not allow me a sufficient opportunity to test the accuracy of the supposition that every soutid forms a root, and, consequently, that every character which represents those sounds becomes, likewise, a visible root, so that every letter of the alphabet of the language is in reality a root, conveying an abstract idea of certain prominent powers which are essential to it.* My present object is, therefore, to demonstrate the correctness of this supjDOsition by explanation and illustration, and to place on record, along with the first attempt to form the aboriginal tongue into a written language, my last remarks on the speech of tribes, which, in this portion of Australia, will soon become extinct ! Death has triumphed over these aborigines ; for no rising generation remains to succeed them in their place, save that generation of whom it is written, " Grod shall enlarge Japheth, and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem." In attempting to show the natural structure and peculiarities of the language, I hope that the philologist may here find some assistance in his researches, as well as any others who may be endeavouring to acquire a knowledge of barbarous languages, in which there are difiiculties unsuspected, because they are not commonly found in the languages of Europe. I cannot too strongly recommend to those who are en- deavouring to attain a knowledge of the language of savage nations, the necessity of dismissing from the mind the trammels of European schools, and simply to follow out the natural rules of languages which have not been sophisticated by art. The almost sovereign contempt with which the aboriginal language of New South Wales has been treated in this colony, and the indifference shown toward the attempts to gain information on the subject, are not highly indicative of the love of science in this part of the globe; for this it is difficult to account, except on the ground of that universal engagement in so many various employments incidental to a new colony, w^here every individual must be dependent on his own exertions for the necessaries and the comforts of life. * I hope that, in reprinting " The Key," I shall not be held as supporting this theory. — Ed. THE KEY. 91 In tracing analogies with this aboriginal language, I find that the Indians of North America have a ' transitive conjugation,' which expresses the conjoined idea both of the persons acting and acted upon ; ' the form has excited much astonishment and attracted the attention of the learned in different parts of the Avorld.' The aborigines of this colony have a similar form of expression, as is explained fully in my " Australian Grrammar" ;* this I have denominated therein ' active-transitive-reciprocal '; with the dual and the plural number, it constitutes ' the reciprocal modification'; as, bun-kil-lau bali, 'thou and I strike one another' reciprocally, or 'we-two fight'; which phrase would be thus analysed : — bun, the root, ' to strike '; -k i 1, the sign of the infinitive, ' to be, to exist '; -Ian denotes the present time and that the action is reciprocal ; bali is the dual pi'onoun ' we-two.' ' I fight with him' would be expressed by biin-kil-lan bali- noa, in which the noa means 'he '; v. page 17 ; but to say 'he and I fight another' would be bun -tan bali-noa. The Cherokees use no distinct word for the articles a and tlie ; but, when required, they use a word equivalent to the numeral one^ and the demonstrative pronouns tliis and tliai, agreeably to the original use and nature of the words which we call articles ; so likewise the aborigines of this colony ; they too use wakal for o, and for tlie the pronoun demonstrative both of thing and of place; as,